ffi 

bJD 


GRASSES 

AND 

HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

IN 
NORTH     AMERICA 

By  THOMAS  SHAW 

PROFESSOR   OF   ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY   AT  THE 
UNIVERSITY   OF   MINNESOTA    . 


AUTHOR    OF 

•FORAGE  CROPS:  OTHER,  THAN 

"THE  ^TODY,;C5F  DEEDS'"  ,' 

"SOILING  CHOPS' AND  THE  SILO 

"ANlMAI;  BtfEEbltyG/  E7£  '% 


ST.  PAUL 
WEBB  PUBLISHING  CO. 

1910 


COPYRIGHT.  1903,  1910 

BY 
WEBB  PUBLISHING  CO. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

In  preparing  this  work,  -the  author  desires  to  acknowl- 
edge the  assistance  derived  from  "Grasses  of  North 
America/'  by  W<  J.  Beal,  "Forage  Crops  and  Grasses," 
by  Charles  L.  Flint,  "Grasses  and  Clovers/7  by  Henry 
A.  Dreer,  "Farmers'  Book  of  Grasses/7  by  D.  L.  Phares, 
and  bulletins  issued  by  several  of  the  experiment  sta- 
tions in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  also  by  the  Unit- 
ed States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

For  the  sketches,  the  author  is  indebted  to  Prof.  A. 
M.  Soule,  Director  Experiment  Station,  Knoxville, 
Tenn.,  William  T.  Shaw,  Corvallis,  Oregon,  and  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

To  all  persons  in  the  United  States  ivlw  are  inter- 
ested in  the  growing  of  grasses  or  in  grazing,  this  work 
is  most  respectfully  dedicated  by  the  Author. 

University  of  Minnesota,  1903. 


334473 


THE  AUTHOR'S  PKEEACE. 

As  is  generally  known  a  number  of  books  have  been 
written  on  grasses  in  our  own  country  and  also  in 
lands  beyond  the  sea.  These  furnish  much  valuable  in- 
formation with  reference  to  grasses,  but  in  all  or  near- 
ly all  of  them,  the  tendency  is  to  treat  of  grasses  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  botanist  rather  than  from  that  of 
the  agriculturist.  As  far  as  the  author  has  been  able 
to  ascertain,  no  book  has  yet  been  written  which  takes 
the  economic  grasses  of  this  country  in  an  orderly  and 
comprehensive  succession,  and  points  out  to  the  farm- 
er how  to  grow  them.  Much  valuable  information  is 
given  in  the  agricultural  press  but  it  is  more  or  less 
fragmentary  in  character  and  in  the  nature  of  things 
is  soon  lost  to  the  view.  Certain  bulletins  published 
by  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  treat  of  grass- 
es, but  excellent  as  many  of  these  are  for  the  purpose 
for  which  they  were  written,  much  of  the  information 
which  they  give  is  only  applicable  to  limited  areas. 

It  will  be  the  aim  in  this  book  to  discuss  all  the  grass- 
es at  present  found  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
possessed  of  any  considerable  economic  value,  when 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  needs  of  the  stock- 
man and  the  farmer.  The  discussion  will  include  the 
characteristics  of  each  kind  of  grass,  its  adaptation  to 
climate  and  soil,  place  in  the  rotation,  preparing  the 


vi  PREFACE. 

land  for  the  seed  and  sowing  the  same,  pasturing  and 
harvesting  for  hay  and  for  seed  and  renewing  the  grass- 
es where  this  may  be  practicable.  It  will  also  discuss 
the  questions  of  temporary,  permanent  and  range  pas- 
tures respectively  and  that  of  meadows  and  making  hay. 
Although  the  clovers  are  largely  grown  for  practically 
the  same  economic  uses  as  grasses,  the  discussion  of  the 
former  will  be  reserved  for  a  separate  volume. 

In  writing  the  book,  the  aim  has  been  to  prepare  a 
volume  that  would  discriminate  between  the  important 
and  the  unimportant  in  economic  grasses,  and  to  present 
information  in  an  orderly  and  consecutive  way  with 
reference  to  the  former  onlyj  that  would  in  some  meas- 
ure at  least  meet  the  needs  of  the  farmer  and  the  stu- 
dent of  agriculture. 

University  Experiment  Station.,  St.  Anthony  Park, 
Minn.,  1903. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Page 

CHAPTER  I. 
INTBODUCTOEY 1 

CHAPTER  II. 
GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  FOB  GROWING  GBASSES 8 

CHAPTER  III. 
TIMOTHY 49 

CHAPTER  IV. 
KENTUCKY  BLUE  GBASS  79 

CHAPTER  V. 
BERMUDA Ill 

CHAPTER  VI. 
ORCHABD  GRASS  131 

CHAPTER  VII. 
RED  TOP 147 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
RUSSIAN  BBOME  166 

CHAPTER  IX. 

MEADOW  FESCUE 190 

CHAPTER  X. 
TALL  OAT  GEASS  206 

CHAPTER  XI. 
MEADOW  FOXTAIL 222 

CHAPTER  XII. 
GBASSES  USEFUL  BUT  DIFFICULT  OF  EBADICATION 232 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
RYE  GRASSES 265 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
MISCELLANEOUS  GRASSES  289 

CHAPTER  XV. 
TEMPORARY  PASTURES 335 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
PERMANENT  PASTURES  365 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY 403 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
PASTURES  ON  THE  RANGE 436 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Figure.  Page. 

1.  Making  Hay  on  the  Tide  Lands,  near  Fairhaven,  Puget 

Sound,    Wash Frontispiece 

2.  Timothy    51 

3.  Kentucky   Blue    81 

4.  Bermuda    114 

5.  Bermuda  Turf    125 

6.  Orchard    133 

7.  Red    Top    149 

8.  Russian   Brome    167 

9.  Meadow   Fescue    191 

10.  Tall    Oat 207 

11.  Meadow    Foxtail    223 

12.  Quack    , 233 

13.  Johnson    248 

14.  Western  Rye    265 

15.  Perennial  Rye    274 

16.  Texas  Blue    291 

17.  Rescue    310 

18.  Sheep's  Fescue 315 

19.  Velvet    322 

20.  Permanent  Meadow  on  Tennessee  Experiment  Farm.. 409 


INDEX. 

Page 

Australian  Saltbush,  discussion  of, 326-330 

described   326 

distribution 327 

soils   328 

place  in  the  rotation 328 

preparing  the  soil 328 

sowing   329 

pasturing   329 

harvesting  for  hay  :...* 330 

securing  seed  330 

renewing   330 

Bermuda,  discussion  of, 111-130 

described  111-115 

distribution  116,  117 

soils   117 

place  in  the  rotation 118 

preparing  the  soil 119 

sowing  or  planting  120-122 

pasturing    123 

harvesting  for  hay 124 

securing  seed 127 

renewing   128 

eradicating   129 

Blue  Joint,  discussion  of, 331,  332 

Blue  Grama,  discussion  of, 333,  334 

Carpet,   discussion  of, 318-321 

described  318 

-    distribution    .  .319 

soils    320 

place  in  the  rotation 320 

preparing  the  soil '. 320 

sowing  or  planting   320 

pasturing 321 

harvesting  for  hay 321 

securing  seed 321 

renewing 321 

Crab,  discussion  of, 260-264 

described  260 


x  INDEX. 

Page 

distribution  261 

soils 261 

place  in  the  rotation  , 261 

preparing  the  soil 261 

sowing  -. 261 

pasturing 261 

harvesting  for  hay  262 

securing  seed 263 

methods  of  eradicating 263 

Fowl  Meadow,  discussion  of, 305-309 

described  305 

distribution  305 

soils  306 

place  in  the  rotation 306 

preparing  the  soil 307 

sowing 307 

pasturing 307 

harvesting  for  hay  308 

securing  seed  308 

renewing  309 

General  Principles  for  Growing  Grasses,  discussion  of, . . .  .8-48 

described 8,  9 

adaptation  in  grasses 10 

place  in  the  rotation  11,  12 

preparing  the  soil  13-17 

seasons  for  sowing 17-19 

methods  of  sowing ~; 19-23 

depth  to  bury  seed 23-26 

methods  of  covering 26-28 

amounts  of  seed  to  sow 28-30 

sowing  with  or  without  a  nurse  crop 30-35 

sowing  grasses  alone  or  in  combination 35-37 

grazing  of  meadows  37-39 

grazing  of  pastures. x. . ." 39-41 

renovating  meadows 41-43 

renovating  pastures  . . . .' 43-46 

grasses  as  soil  improvers 46-48 

Italian  Rye,  discussion  of, 281-288 

described \ 281,  282 

distribution  283 

soils  284 

preparing  the  soil 285 

sowing •  •  •  •  285 

pasturing  286 

harvesting  for  hay 288 

securing  seed 287 

renewing 287 


INDEX.  xi 

Page. 

Johnson,  discussion  of,  248-260 

described 248-250 

distribution    250' 

soils 251 

place  in  the  rotation 252 

sowing  or  planting 253 

pasturing 254 

harvesting  for  hay 255 

securing  seed 256 

renewing   257 

eradicating    257,  258 

value  of 259 

Kentucky  Blue,  discussion  of, 79-110 

described 79-83 

distribution 83-85 

soils 86-88 

place  in  the  rotation 89 

preparing  the  soil   90,  91 

sowing 92-96 

pasturing 97-99 

harvesting  for  hay 100,  101 

securing  seed  101,  103 

renewing 104-108 

blue  grass  in  lawns 109,  110 

Meadow  Fescue,  discussion  of, 190-205 

described 190-194 

distribution 194-197 

soils 197 

place  in  the  rotation 198 

preparing  the  soil 199 

sowing * 199-202 

pasturing 202 

harvesting  for  hay    203 

securing  seed  204 

renewing 204 

Meadow  Foxtail,  discussion  of, 222-231 

described  222 

distribution   225,  226 

soils    227 

place  in  the  rotation  227 

preparing  the  soil ' 228 

sowing 228,   229 

pasturing    230 

harvesting  for  hay 230 

securing  seed 231 

renewing  231 

Meadows  and  Making  Hay,  discussion  of, 403-435 

described    403,  404 


xil  INDEX, 

t 

Page. 

Hay  crops  for  states  and  provinces 404 

Northeastern  States .*. 405-407 

Southeastern  States   407-409 

Canadian  Northwest   409 

Upper  Mississippi  Basin 410-412 

Irrigated   Western  Valleys 412 

West  of  the  Cascades 413-417 

Miscellaneous  discussions  upon* 417-435 

preparing  the  soil 417,  418 

sowing    419 

harvesting    420-422 

curing  hay 422-428 

storing  hay   , 428-431 

grazing   431-433 

fertilizing  and  renewing 433-435 

Orchard,  discussion  of, 131-146 

described 131,   132 

distribution   135,  136 

soils    136 

place  in  the  rotation 137 

preparing  the  soil 138 

sowing    139-141 

pasturing   141,  142 

harvesting  for  hay 143 

securing  seed    144,   145 

renewing    146 

Perennial  Rye,  discussion  of, 273-281 

described    273-276 

distribution  ' 276,  277 

soils  278 

place  in  the  rotation 278 

preparing  the  soil 278 

sowing   279 

pasturing   280 

harvesting  for  hay 280 

securing  seed   280 

renewing   281 

Permanent  Pastures,  discussion  of, 365-402 

described    365,   366 

Different  classes  of 366-369 

indigenous   367 

introduced    367 

indigenous  and  introduced 368 

duration  of 368 

Adaptation  to  various  soils 369-373 

upland 369 

slough  lands    370 

sandy  lands   371 


INDEX.  xiii 

Page. 

dry  areas   371 

wet  soils   372 

growing  in  shade  372 

growing  in  marshes  373 

States  and  Provinces 373-384 

Northeastern  States   373-376 

Southeastern   States 376-378 

Canadian   Northwest    378 

Upper  Mississippi  Basin   379-381 

Semi-arid  Belt  381 

Irrigated  Western  Valleys. 383 

Miscellaneous  discussions  upon 384-402 

sowing 385-389 

grazing 389-392 

fertilizing  and  renewing  392-399 

transforming  brush  lands   395-398 

transforming  native  prairie 398 

shifting  lands  399-401 

renewing 401,  4Q2 

Quack,  discussion  of, 232-248 

described    232-236 

distribution    . 237 

soils 238 

place  in  rotation •. 238 

preparing  the  soil 239 

sowing 239-240 

pasturing 241 

harvesting  for  hay  241 

securing  seed 242 

renewing 242 

eradicating   245-247 

observations   247 

Range  Pastures,  discussion  of, 436-457 

range  states   436 

range  country  described 436-438 

soils 441 

climate  - 441,  442 

grazing   443 

carrying  capacity 444 

range  country  in  Canada 444 

Grasses  failing  445-448 

extent  of   446 

causes  of   446-448 

Renewing  grasses 449,  450 

practicability  of   449 

impracticability  of  449 

necessary  modifications   450 

West  of  Cascades    383 


xiT  INDEX. 

Page 

Difficulties  of  renewing 450-454 

fencing 451 

sowing  seed 452 

substitution  452-454 

Future  of 454-457 

protection  of 455 

rearing  stock  455 

disposing  of  stock 455 

fattening  stock  ."" 456 

Red  Top,  discussion  of, 147-165 

described  147-151 

distribution  151-153 

soils  153 

place  in  the  rotation 154 

preparing  the  soil 155 

sowing  155-159 

pasturing 159,  160 

harvesting  for  hay  161 

securing  seed 162,  163 

renewing  164 

binding  soils : 165 

Rescue,  discussion  of,  ; . .  309-313 

described  309 

distribution  310 

soils .310 

place  in  the  rotation  310 

preparing  the  soil 311 

sowing  311 

pasturing 311 

harvesting  for  hay 312 

securing  seed  312 

renewing 312 

Rough  Stalked  Meadow,  discussion  of, 301-304 

described  301 

distribution  302 

soils 302 

place  in  the  rotation . .  303 

preparing  the  soil. 303 

sowing  303 

pasturing  304 

harvesting  for  hay 304 

securing  seed 304 

renewing 304 

Russian  Brome,  discussion  of, 166-189 

described  166-170 

distribution  170-173 

soils : 173 

place  in  the  rotation .174-176 


INDEX.  XV 

Page 

preparing  the  soil  177,  178 

sowing  179-182 

pasturing 183 

harvesting  for  hay 184 

securing  seed 185-187 

renewing 188 

destroying  189 

Sheep's  Fescue,  discussion  of,  313-318 

described 313 

distribution 314 

place  in  the  rotation 314 

preparing  the  soil  : . . . .  314 

sowing  317 

pasturing 317 

harvesting  for  hay 317 

securing  seed  317 

renewing 318 

lawns  318 

Tall  Oat,  discussion  of, 206-221 

described  206-210 

distribution  210-212 

soils  212 

place  in  the  rotation 213 

preparing  the  soil 214 

sowing  215-217 

pasturing  217 

harvesting  for  hay 218 

securing  seed 219 

renewing  • 220 

Texas  Blue,  discussion  of, 297-301 

described  '. 297,  298 

distribution  298 

soils  299 

preparing  the  soil 299 

sowing  or  planting 299 

pasturing , 300 

harvesting  for  hay 301 

securing  seed 301 

renewing  , 301 

Temporary  pastures,  discussion  of, 335-364 

described  335,  336 

Adaptation  to  various  conditions ,337-342 

upland  pastures  ;.  .337 

slough  lands  338 

sandy  lands  339 

dry  areas , 339 

wet  soils 340 

growing  in  shade .  .341 


xvi  INDEX. 

Page 

States  and  Provinces 342-353 

Northeastern  States  342-344 

Southeastern  States  344-346 

Canadian  Northwest  346 

Upper  Mississippi  Basin 347 

Semi-arid  Belt 348 

Irrigated  Western  Valleys 349,  350 

West  of  the  Cascades 351 

Pastures  other  than  grasses  and  clover 352 

Miscellaneous  discussions  upon 353-364 

sowing 353-355 

grazing 356,  357 

fertilizing  and  renewing 358-360 

influence  on  succeeding  crops 361-364 

Timothy,  discussion  of, — 49-78 

described  49-53 

distribution 54 

soils  55,  56 

place  in  the  rotation : 57 

preparing  the  soil 58,  59 

sowing  60-69 

pasturing  70,  71 

harvesting  for  hay 72-74 

securing  seed  Y5-77 

renewing 77,  78 

Velvet,  discussion  of, 322-326 

described  322 

distribution 323 

place  in  the  rotation 324 

preparing  the  soil 324 

sowing  324 

pasturing  325 

harvesting  for  hay. 325 

securing  seed 326 

renewing  326 

Western  Rye,  discussion  of, ' 265-273 

described 265-267 

distribution  267,  268 

soils  269 

preparing  the  soil -. . . .  269 

sowing 270 

pasturing  271 

harvesting  for  hay 272 

pscuring  seed 272 

renewing  272 

Wiraf,  discussion  of, 289-297 

described  289  293 

distribution  293 


INDEX.  xvii 

Page 

soils    293 

place  in  the  rotation 293 

preparing  the  soil 294 

sowing    295 

pasturing    295 

harvesting    295 

securing  seed 296 

renewing 296 


CHAPTEE  I. 

INTRODUCTORY 

The  grass  crop  of  the  United  States  is  unquestionably 
its  most  valuable  crop  and  so  it  will  continue  through 
all  time.  True,  it  is  assigned  the  second  place  in 
the  United  States  Census  Returns  of  Agricultural  Sta- 
tistics for  1899.  Corn  is  given  the  first  rank  but  these 
reports  do  not  take  into  account  the  value  of  the  pasture 
produced  by  grasses,  nor  do  they  include  the  ameliorat- 
ing and  renovating  influence  which  these  exert  upon  the 
soil,  and,  consequently,  upon  the  production  of  other 
crops.  The  influence  referred  to  relates  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  supply  of  humus  in  the  soil  and  the  effect 
which  the  presence  of  the  same  exerts  upon  aeration, 
friability,  moisture  and  available  fertility.  It  is  at  least 
an  open  question  if  the  influence,  which  the  grass  thus 
exerts  on  subsequent  production  in  other  crops,  is  not 
as  valuable  in  the  aggregate  in  short  rotations  as  the 
grass  crop  itself.  It  is  an  open  question,  therefore,  as 
to  whether  grass  in  its  death  does  not  give  to  the  agri- 
culturist a  return  equal  to  that  given  during  its  life. 

So  necessary  is  the  grass  crop  to  the  maintenance  of 
an  equilibrium  in  cultivated  soils,  that,  in  its  prolonged 
absence,  it  is  not  possible  to  maintain  the  same  in  cul- 
tivated soils.  Commercial  fertilizers  may  be  made  to 
maintain  an  equilibrium  in  fertility,  but  they  do  not 


2        GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

materially  influence  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil, 
which  exerts  an  influence,  on  production,  not  second  in 
importance  to  fertility.  To  maintain  such  a  condition, 
grasses  must  be  grown  in  the  ordinary  processes  of  till- 
age. They  are  the  balm  which  soothes  the  wound  given 
to  Mother  Earth  by  the  ploughshare  and  other  imple-. 
ments  used  in  tillage. 

The  question  of  grass  production,  therefore,  is  of 
supreme  importance  to  the  farmer  and  because  it  is,  any 
practical  information  bearing  upon  the  growth  of  grass- 
es should  merit  his  attention. 

Grasses  But  Little  Known. — Notwithstanding  the 
great  value  of  grasses  to  the  farmer,  it  would  probably 
be  correct  to  say,  that  he  knows  less  about  them  and 
the  best  modes  of  growing  them  than  about  any  other 
crop  or  class  of  crops  as  are  commonly  grown  on  the 
farm;  nor  is  he  altogether  to  blame  for  such  lack  of 
knowledge.  The  farmers  of  this  continent  have  not 
had  access  to  any  book  which  deals  with  the  question 
of  growing  grasses,  as  applicable  to  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  They  have  had  access  to 
only  such  avenues  of  information  bearing  upon  this 
question,  as  have  come  from  their  own  personal  expe- 
rience, that  of  their  neighbors,  or  from  the  desultory 
and  inadequate  discussion  of  these  questions  in  the  ag- 
ricultural press. 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  average  tiller 
of  the  soils  knows  about  only  a  few  grasses ;  those  that 
are  cultivated  in  his  locality.  Including  clovers,  these 
are  probably  less  in  number  than  half  a  dozen.  In 
regard  to  some  of  these,  though  thoy  have  grown  upon 


INTRODUCTORY.  3 

his  land  during  all  the  years  that  he  has  tilled  the 
same,  he  has  never  learned  the  extent  of  the  service,  they 
may  be  made  to  render  him  by  stimulating  them  to  high- 
er production.  Such,  for  instance  is  blue  grass  (Poa 
pratensis)  abused  by  overgrazing  and  neglected  by  be- 
ing allowed  to  grow  unfertilized;  like  Topsy  in  the 
marvellous  story,  they  just  grow  because  they  are  al- 
lowed to  grow.  The  knowledge  of  these  truths  has 
moved  the  author  to  write  this  book  and  if  it  brings  any 
added  light  to  those  who  desire  the  same,  one  purpose 
for  which  it  has  been  written  will  have  been  well  served. 

Students  of  the  agricultural  colleges,  as  well  as  farm- 
ers, labor  at  a  disadvantage  with  reference  to  the  ques- 
tion of  grasses.  They  pursue  their  studies  in  the  ab- 
sence of  a  text  book  which  tells  how  to  grow  them. 
When  this  is  said,  it  must  not  be  interpreted  in  the 
slightest  degree  as  reflecting  on  the  excellent  books  that 
have  been  written  in  America  on  the  grass  question; 
these  were  written  for  a  different  purpose.  A  second 
purpose  in  writing  this  book,  therefore,  is  to  put,  in  the 
hands  of  the  agricultural  student,  a  book  that  will  ren- 
der some  assistance  to  him  in  the  study  of  this  involved 
and  difficult  problem. 

Grasses  Worthy  of  Cultivation. — The  dearth  of  infor- 
mation with  reference  to  growing  the  more  valuable 
grasses,  that  are  being  cultivated,  or  that  are  susceptible 
to  profitable  cultivation,  is  all  the  more  surprising  when 
these  are  considered.  In  this  book  the  aim  has  been 
to  discuss  all  the  varieties  that  are  considered  really 
worthy  of  cultivation  on  lands  that  are  tilled  in  the 
Urn  tori  States  and  those  not  yet  cultivated  but  which 


4        GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

give  promise  of  sufficient  value  when  cultivated;  the 
former  of  these  number  only  24  and  the  latter  3.  This 
fact  seems  incredible  when  it  is  called  to  mind  that  the 
number  of  the  species. of  grasses  in  the  world  runs  into 
the  thousands  and  that  in  some  of  the  individual  states 
it  runs  into  the  hundreds.  It  is  well,  probably,  that 
the  number  of  the  useful  grasses  is  not  greater  in  the 
meantime,  since  the  list  would  seem  to  include  enough 
to  meet  the  present  needs  of  the  agriculturist.  The 
smaller  the  number  of  grasses  that  suffice  to  meet  those 
needs,  the  easier  it  is  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the 
best  methods  of  growing  them.  This  does  not  imply, 
however,  that  the  necessities  of  the  agriculturist  will 
not,  in  the  future,  call  for  an  enlarged  list  of  varieties. 
When  that  time  comes,  the  wisdom  of  the  agricultural 
scientists  will  be  found  equal  to  the  occasion,  either 
in  evolving  new  varieties  or  in  improving  older  ones. 
In  the  meantime,  the  fact  cannot  be  gainsaid,  that,  to 
the  practical  agriculturist,  knowledge  pertaining  to 
the  valuable  grasses  of  sufficient  value  to  justify  grow- 
ing them  under  cultivation,  is  of  far  greater  account 
than  knowledge  pertaining  to  grasses,  the  low  value 
of  which,  will  not  warrant  such  cultivation ;  hence,  the 
restriction  of  the  present  discussion  to  the  former. 

Grasses  of  Highest  Value. — The  very  limited  num- 
ber of  grasses,  that  are  of  highest  economic  value  un- 
der cultivation,  is  even  more  surprising  than  the  num- 
ber which  may  be  profitably  cultivated.  But  three  va- 
rieties of  the  entire  number  are  worthy  of  a  place  in 
the  front  rank.  These  are  timothy  (Phleum  pratense), 
king  of  the  hay  grasses  on  the  American  vonti~ 


INTRODUCTORY.  5 

ucnt;  Kentucky  blue  grass  (Poo,  prate  iisis),  king 
among  the  pasture  grasses  of  the  northern  states  and 
Canada,  and  Bermuda  grass  (Cynodon  dactylori),  king 
among  the  pasture  grasses  of  the  south.  But  six  va- 
rieties would  seem  worthy  of  a  place  in  second  rank. 
These  are  orchard  grass  (Dactylus  glomerata),  redtop 
(Agrostis  vulgaris),  Russian  brome  (Bromus  mermis), 
meadow  fescue  (Festuca  pratensis),  tall  oat  grass  (Are- 
henatJierum  avenaceum),  and  meadow  foxtail  (Alope- 
curus  pratensis}.  The  claim  of  meadow  foxtail  to  a 
place  among  these  six  may  be  disputed  but  leaving  it. 
out  it  would  seem  correct  to  say  that  the  present  needs 
of  the  agriculturist  in  the  lines  of  hay  and  pasture 
could  be  pretty  well  met  by  these  eight  grasses.  The 
other  grasses  discussed  are  all  possessed  of  considerable 
value,  but  in  the  meantime  would  not  seem  worthy  of 
being  placed  higher  than  in  the  third  rank  in  the  little 
array  of  grasses  that  merit  the  attention  of  the  tillers 
of  the  soil  under  American  conditions. 

Plan  of  the  Discussion. — The  subject  opens  with  the 
discussion  in  Chapter  II  of  the  General  Principles 
which  govern  the  Growing  of  Grasses.  This  was  deemed 
necessary  because  of  the  desire  to  give  prominence  to 
the  question  of  growth,  rather  than  to  that  which  re- 
lated to  structure  and  classification  of  the  grasses.  In 
the  judgment  of  the  author,  this  chapter  is  the  key  to 
the  discussion  and  therefore  should  be  given  more  care- 
ful thought  by  the  reader  than  any  other  chapter  in  the 
book. 

Chapters  III  to  XI  inclusive  treat  of  the  nine  grasses 
that  would  seem  to  be  possessed  of  highest  economic 


6       GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

value  among  the  grasses  at  present  cultivated  in  the 
United  States.  They  may  be  considered,  therefore,  as 
the  major  grasses.  It  is  the  aim  in  the  discussion  to 
take  these  in  the  order  of  relative  importance;  whether 
they  have  been  so  placed,  may  justly  be  regarded  as  open 
to  dispute  because  of  the  difficulties  to  be  encountered 
in  making  such  a  comparison.  Though  correctly  placed 
at  the  present  time,  the  order  of  relative  importance  may 
change,  as  public  attention  becomes  more  and  more  cen- 
tered upon  their  relative  adaptation  and  properties  in 
the  future.  It  may  be  questioned  as  to  whether  meadow 
foxtail  is  deserving  of  the  attention  given  to  it  and  yet 
it  has  not  only  been  extensively  cultivated  in  north- 
western Europe  but  is  there  highly  prized.  There 
would  seem  to  be  no  good  reasons  why  it  should  not 
render  similar  service  in  certain  areas  of  this  country, 
when  more  attention  comes  to  be  given  to  the  growth 
of  permanent  pastures,  for  which  it  is  more  especially 
adapted. 

Chapters  XII  to  XIV  discuss  what  may  be  consid- 
ered the  minor  grasses  worthy  of  cultivation.  Some  of 
these  are  of  much  economic  importance,  as,  for  instance, 
western  rye  grass  (Agropygrum  tenerum),  but  distri- 
bution of  all,  or  nearly  all,  of  them  is  more  sectional 
than  is  that  of  the  major  grasses.  Chapter  XII  dis- 
cusses grasses  highly  useful  in  producing  food  for  ani- 
mals but  which  are  so  difficult  of  eradication  that  it 
would  seem  unwise  ever  to  sow  them  on  lands  that  -aro 
again  to  be  cultivated.  It  was  thought  best,  however, 
to  include  them  since  because  of  the  extreme  difficulty 
in  eradicating  them,  it  is  all  the  more  important  that 


INTRODUCTORY.  7 

their  habits  of  growth  should  be  well  understood.  Chap- 
ter XIII  considers  Rye  Grasses  and  probably  includes 
all  of  this  family,  at  present,  worthy  of  cultivatiOD 
under  American  conditions.  In  Chapter  XIV  various 
grasses  are  considered  of  still  less  economic  importance 
to  the  whole  country.  It  may  even  be  questioned  as  to 
whether  some  of  these  are  worthy  of  cultivation,  as  for 
instance,  velvet  grass  (Holcus  lanatus)  but  it  will  be 
found  that  each  of  them  has  a  useful  mission  in  some 
locality  and  under  some  conditions. 

Chapter  XV  discusses  Temporary  Pastures ;  Chapter 
XVI,  Permanent  Pastures;  Chapter  XVII,  Meadows 
and  Making  Hay,  and  Chapter  XVIII,  Pastures  on  the 
Range.  The  discussion  of  each  of  these  phases  of  the 
grass  question  is  of  necessity  brief,  too  brief  probably 
to  be  sufficiently  comprehensive  and  succinct,  but  the 
course  adopted  seemed  necessary  to  avoid  unduly  swell- 
ing the  contents  of  the  volume. 


CHAPTER  II. 

GENERAL    PRINCIPLES    WHICH    APPLY    TO    THE    GROWING 
OF    GRASSES. 

In  discussing  the  question  of  grasses  and  how  to  grow 
them  it  is  quite  impossible  to  lay  down  any  hard  and 
fast  rules  which  will  be  applicable  in  all  instances  and 
without  variation,  owing  to  the  differences  in  method 
called  for  by  a  difference  in  the  conditions  which  re- 
late to  growth.  This  difference  may  arise  from  varia- 
tions in  soils,  in  climates,  in  the  rotations  practiced, 
and  also  from  various  other  causes,  including  the  va- 
rious uses  for  which  they  are  grown.  To  illustrate : — 
while  it  may  be  advantageous  to  bury  grass  seeds  to  a 
considerable  depth  in  certain  soils,  it  may  be  equally 
advantageous  to  sow  them  on  the  surface  in  other  soils. 
While  the  best  results  may  be  obtained  from  sowing  some 
grasses  in  the  spring  in  certain  climates,  to  secure  equal 
results  in  certain  other  climates,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  sow  them  in  the  fall.  Again,  while  in  some  instances 
a  stand  of  certain  grasses  can  only  be  obtained  after 
a  crop  which  puts  humus  in  the  soil,  under  other  con- 
ditions an  equally  good  stand  may  be  obtained  by  sow- 
ing them,  almost  anywhere  in  the  rotation,  and  while 
it  may  be  eminently  proper  to  sow  certain  grasses  with 
but  scant  thickness,  to  grow  seed  crops  it  may  be  equally 
proper  to  sow  them  quite  thickly  when  the  object  is 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  9 

to  provide  pasture  for  sheep.  Differences  of  treatment 
equally  striking  also  arise  in  the  laying  down  of  perma- 
nent pastures  and  in  the  management  of  the  same.  In 
-some  localities  the  best  permanent  pastures  consist  of 
a  single  grass.  In -others,  the  pastures  are  improved 
as  the  number  of  the  properly  selected  grasses  grown  in 
them  is  increased. 

The  fact  remains,  nevertheless,  that  there  are  certain 
principles  which  will  be  found  so  frequently  applicable 
when  applied  to  the  growth  of  grasses  as  to  render  very 
substantial  aid  to  those  concerned  in  growing  them  when 
intelligently  applied.  Because  of  this  the  attempt  to 
formulate  these,  or  at  least  the  chief  of  them,  and  to 
emphasize  certain  facts  of  general  application,  is  not 
only  justifiable  but  it  is  in  a  sense  a  necessity.  It  is 
thus  very  evident  that  those  who  grow  grasses  intelli- 
gently must  always  stand  upon  the  watch  tower  of  care- 
ful consideration  while  thus  engaged. 

The  more  important  of  the  principles  which  relate 
to  the  growing  of  grasses  are  found  in  such  phases  of 
the  question  as  the  following: — viz.,  Adaption;  place 
for  them  in  the  rotation;  preparing  the  soil  to  receive 
them;  seasons  for  sowing;  methods  of  sowing;  depth 
to  bury  the  seed ;  methods  of  covering ;  amounts  of  seed 
to  sow;  sowing  with  or  without  a  nurse  crop;  sowing 
alone  or  in  combinations;  for  hay  or  for  pasture;  the 
grazing  of  meadows ;  the  grazing  of  pastures ;  renovating 
meadows ;  renovating  pastures,  and  the  discussion  of  the 
question  of  grasses  as  soil  improvers.  These  will  now 
be  discussed  in  the  order  named.  But  before  doing  so 
ti  may  be  well  to  emphasize  the  fact,  that  these  prin- 


10  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

ciples  are  general  rather  than  specific  in  their  applica- 
tion. They  do  not  apply  equally  to  the  growth  of  all 
the  different  varieties,  nor  do  they  apply  equally  to  the 
growing  of  the  same  variety  in  all  sections  of  the  coun- 
try. 

Adaptation  in  Grasses. — In  growing  grasses  it  would 
not  be  easily  possible  to  give  too  much  consideration  to 
the  question  of  adaptation.  It  is  not  wise  to  attempt 
to  grow  grasses  for  practical  uses  in  localities  not  rea- 
sonably well  adapted  to  their  growth,  howsoever  valuable 
they  be  in  themselves  or  as  a  food  for  live  stock.  At 
the  present  time,  however,  the  adaptation  of  several  va- 
rieties of  even  the  more  valuable  of  the  grasses  is  not 
fully  known  in  this  country.  The  place  for  experiment, 
therefore,  with  a  view  to  throw  further  light  on  these 
is  a  very  wide  one,  nor  should  conclusions  be  reached 
too  quickly  in  regard  to  such  adaptation  in  any  state 
or  province.  Adaptation  may  be  sectional  because  of 
soil  peculiarities  and  for  other  reasons.  In  Southwest- 
ern Minnesota,  for  instance,  the  adaptation  for  blue 
grass  is  only  quite  ordinary,  whereas  in  several  counties 
in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  same  state  it  is  extraordi- 
nary. 

When  determining  which  grasses  shall  be  grown  in 
any  locality,  the  aim  should  be  to  give  the  preference  to 
those  useful  varieties  which  have  the  highest  general 
adaptation  for  that  particular  locality.  For  instance, 
Russian  brome  grass  (Bromus  inermis)  has  high  adapta- 
tion for  the  conditions  that  generally  prevail  over  the 
northwestern  states  and  also  the  northwestern  provinces 
of  Canada,  while  its  general  adaption  to  the  southern 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  11 

states  is  much  lower.  Consequently,  this  grass  should 
be  given  a  much  more  prominent  place  in  the  states 
and  provinces  first  named.  Because  of  this  difference 
in  adaptation  it  may  be  eminently  proper  in  certain  in- 
stances to  give  the  right  of  way  in  production  to  cer- 
tain grasses  that  are  intrinsically  much  inferior  to 
others,  could  they  be  grown.  In  this  fact  the  justifica- 
tion is  found  for  growing  under  some  conditions  such 
varieties  as  couch  grass  (Agropyrum  repens),  Johnson 
grass  (Sorghum  lialapenso)  and  Bermuda  grass  (Cyno- 
don  dactylon),  all  of  which  are  weed  pests  of  the  most 
perplexing  type,  when  allowed  to  grow  under  other  con- 
ditions. It  is  not  wise  to  attempt  to  grow  grasses  to 
any  considerable  extent  in  any  locality  for  which  their 
adaptation  is  lower  than  what  may  be  considered  as  nor- 
mal for  them.  Nor  should  valuable  time  and  labor  be 
thrown  away  in  the  attempt  to  grow  a  large  variety 
of  grasses  in  permanent  pastures  where  the  conditions 
only  favor  the  growth  of  a  few  varieties. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — The  aim  should  be  to  sow 
grasses  on  clean  ground.  They  should,  therefore,  as  a 
rule,  be  sown  after  a  cleaning  crop,  that  is  to  say,  after 
such  crops  as  are  cultivated  while  they  are  growing  or 
after  a  summer-fallow.  These  crops  include  corn,  sor- 
ghum, the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  potatoes,  field  roots, 
rape,  tobacco  and  cotton.  When  thus  sown  for  hay,  a 
crop  is  secured  that  is  usually  entirely  free,  or,  in  the 
main,  free  from  extraneous  products  which  would  lessen 
the  value  for  feeding  at  home  and  to  a  still  greater  de- 
gree for  exposing  for  sale  on  the  market.  When  thus 
sown  for  pasture,  the  pastures  will  be  clean  or  meas- 


12  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

urably  so.  When  these  are  weedy  when  first  laid  down, 
the  tendency  is  that  they  shall  become  more  so  as  they 
become  older,  much  depending  of  course  upon  the  kind 
or  kinds  of  the  weeds  that  infest  them,  and  when  weeds 
increase  in  them  they  cannot  be  got  rid  of  without  great 
labor.  The  tendency  with  biennial  and  perennial  weeds 
is  to  increase,  especially  the  latter.  But  there  are  some 
kinds  of  weeds  more  commonly  of  the  annual  class,  and 
which  are  eaten  by  live  stock,  that  decrease  in  pastures. 
Such  are  wild  oats.  And  some  kinds  of  grasses  crowd 
out  not  a  few  of  the  forms  of  weed  life.  Such  are 
Kentucky  blue  grass  (Poa  pratensis)  and  Russian  brome 
(Bromus  inermis).  Because  of  this  power,  there  may 
be  instances  in  which  these  grasses  can  be  sown  on 
weedy  ground. 

When  grasses  thus  follow  cultivated  crops,  if  sown 
on  ground  that  has  been  prepared  to  receive  the  seed 
by  stirring  the  surface  and  pulverizing  without  having 
ploughed  it,  the  further  advantage  follows:  viz.,  that 
the  land  will  be  firm  and  consequently  would  lose  less 
by  surface  evaporation  than  if  it  had  been  prepared  in 
the  ordinary  way.  This,  in  dry  areas,  is  a  matter  of 
much  importance.  When  such  lands  are  not  ploughed 
after  the  removal  of  the  crop,  the  further  advantage  fol- 
lows, that  the  weed  seeds  in  the  lower  sections  of  the 
cultivated  soil  are  brought  to  the  surface.  In  many  in- 
stances these  will  perish  before  the  grass  crop  will  be 
broken  up  again. 

Some  grasses  may  follow  immediately  on  the  removal 
of  forests,  as  soon  as  the  brush  and  valueless  parts 
of  the  trees  have  been  burned.  Kentucky  blue  grass 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  13 

(Poa  praiensis)  is  pre-eminently  adapted  to  such  a  use, 
as  it  will  soon  subdue  the  growth  of  extraneous  and  com- 
paratively useless  products  that  once  spring  up  as  it  were 
spontaneously  on  such  lands.  Other  grasses  may  be 
sown  in  certain  areas  of  the  unbroken  prairie  for  the 
purpose  of  crowding  out  and  supplanting  the  original 
grasses  which  grew  upon  them.  Such  is  Russian  brome 
(Bromus  inermis),  but  this  grass  will  not  crowd  out 
and  supplant  all  kinds  of  prairie  grass  or  even  the  same 
kind  in  all  places. 

It  is  proper  to  follow  grasses  with  such  crops  as 
luxuriate  in  soils  plentifully  supplied  with  humus. 
Such  are  corn,  potatoes,  flax  and  rape.  Where  the  sod 
is  old,  that  is  where  grass  has  grown  for  several  succes- 
sive years,  and  is  then  broken  up,  it,  may  be  advanta- 
geous to  grow  on  it  some  such  crop  as  peas  or  vetches 
to  aid  in  subduing  the  sod,  that  is,  in  hastening  its  de- 
cay. Oats  are  also  capable  of  growing  in  good  form 
after  nearly  all  kinds  of  grass,  as  they  are  a  strong  feed- 
ing plant.  It  is  common  and  usually  preferable  to  de- 
fer the  sowing  of  the  other  small  grains,  as  wheat  and 
barley,  until  the  following  year. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — When  preparing  the  soil  for 
any  kind  of  grass  the  aim  should  be  to  secure  a  moist, 
firm  and  finely  pulverized  seed  bed.  These  requisites 
would  seem  to  be  more  important  relatively  than  depth 
of  tillage,  since  many  kinds  of  grass  when  once  started, 
have  much  power  to  send  their  roots  and  rootlets  down 
into  the  soil  below  the  line  to  which  cultivation  is  ordi- 
narily carried. 

Moisture  in  the  soil  is  of  course  necessary  to  secure 


14  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

germination  and  unchecked  growth  after  the  plants  have 
started.  It  is  secured  under  dry  conditions  by  plough- 
ing the  soil  or  disking  it  some  time  previous  to  the  sow- 
ing of  the  seed  and  then  by  harrowing  it  at  intervals 
to  form  and  preserve  what  may  be  termed  a  dust  mulch 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  subterranean  moisture  through 
capillary  action.  This  power  to  retain  moisture  also 
increases  with  the  increase  in  the  proportion  of  humus, 
that  is  of  decaying  or  decayed  vegetable  matter  in  the 
soil.  The  abundant  presence  of  this  element  is  not  so 
necessary  to  the  successful  growth  of  grasses  as  to  that 
of  the  small  grains,  since  one  object  in  growing  grasses 
in  the  rotation  is  to  increase  the  humus  in  the  soil. 
Nevertheless,  up  to  a  certain  limit,  the  presence  of 
humus  is  quite  helpful  to  the  growth  of  these  also. 

Firmness  in  the  soil  is  secured  by  having  a  consider- 
able interval  between  the  ploughing  of  the  soil  or  the 
first  disking  of  the  same,  and  the  sowing  of  the  seed. 
It  is  further  aided  by  harrowing,  rolling  and  rainfall. 
It  is  beneficial,  since  it  tends  to  exclude  an  excess  of  air 
in  the  soil  near  the  surface,  and  since  it  also  conduces 
to  resistance  to  the  influences  that  tend  to  promote  the 
escape  of  moisture  by  surface  evaporation.  It  also  ren- 
ders soils  which  are  liable  to  heave  less  susceptible  to 
the  action  of  frost.  This  condition,  therefore,  is  of 
much  consequence  with  such  soils  when  grass  seeds  are 
sown  upon  them  in  the  autumn.  With  light  spongy 
soils,  a  firm  condition  is  even  more  important  in  the 
spring,  and  especially  under  conditions  when  moisture 
may  be  more  or  less  lacking.  An  excess  of  firmness 
in  certain  heavy  soils  may  be  induced  by  excessive  rain- 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  15 

fall,  hence,  in  certain  areas,  to  avoid  such  a  possibility 
the  ground  should  not  be  prepared  long  before  the 
grasses  are  sown.  As  a  rule,  in  dry  climates  that  degree 
of  firmness  in  the  soil  that  will  best  promote  the  growth 
of  grasses  will  increase  up  to  a  certain  limit  with  the 
increase  in  the  interval  between  the  breaking  up  of  the 
soil  with  the  plough  or  disk,  and  the  sowing  of  the  seed. 
Conversely,  when  rainfall  is  abundant,  excessive  firm- 
ness will  be  hindered  by  the  shortening  of  such  a  period. 
The  character  of  the  soil  of  course  has  an  important 
bearing  on  the  length  of  the  preparatory  period,  when 
growing  such  grasses,  that  will  put  the  soil  in  the  best 
condition  to  receive  them. 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  it  would  not  be  easy  to 
over-estimate  the  value  of  fine  pulverization  in  the 
seed  bed  on  which  grasses  are  to  be  sown.  Its  value 
arises  from  excluding  an  excess  of  air  from  the  soil 
near  the  surface  when  the  plants  begin  to  grow,  in 
reducing  evaporation,  in  securing  a  more  abundant 
germination  in  the  seeds  sown,  and  in  furnishing 
a  feeding  ground  which  the  tender  rootlets  can  easily 
penetrate  as  they  push  out.  This  condition  is  likely  to 
be  promoted  by  the  influences  that  tend  to  produce  moist- 
ness  and  firmness  in  the  soil.  The  influence  of  frost 
on  fall  ploughed  lands  is  specially  helpful  in  securing 
a  fine  pulverization.  Some  lands  have  it  naturally  in 
a  far  greater  degree  than  others,  hence,  in  those  which 
have,  the  effort  to  secure  such  pulverization  is  not  much 
necessary  on  the  part  of  the  husbandman.  On  all  soils 
stiff  in  texture,  the  fineness  of  the  seed-bed  will  be  pro- 
portionate to  the  labor  put  upon  it  when  preparing  them 


16  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

as  by  using  on  them  the  harrow  and  the  roller.  The 
roller  will  be  found  specially  helpful  when  laying  down 
soils  to  grass.  Before  they  are  sown,  it  very  greatly 
aids  in  securing  a  fine  pulverization.  After  they  are 
sown  it  firms  the  surface  soil,  pressing  it  around  the 
seeds  and  thereby  hastening  germination.  But  when 
grass  seeds  are  sown  in  the  autumn  on  heavy  soils  and 
in  rainy  climates,  it  would  be  easily  possible  to  have  the 
pulverization  so  fine,  that  impaction  of  the  soil  to  an 
injurious  extent  would  follow.  Grasses  like  other  plants 
grow  luxuriantly  in  proportion  as  the  elements  of  plant 
food  are  readily  available  and  abundant  in  the  soil, 
hence,  it  is  quite  possible  to  so  reduce  the  available  fer- 
tility in  a  soil  through  excessive  cropping,  that  on  these 
a  stand  of  grass  cannot  be  secured  unless  they  are  first 
enriched.  ~No  fertilizer  that  can  be  applied  under  these 
conditions  will  equal  farmyard  manure,  since  it  yields 
up  the  elements  of  plant  food  in  it  but  gradually,  hence, 
the  nitrogen  in  the  same  is  not  leeched  out  of  the  soil 
so  readily  as  when  applied  in  the  form  of  commercial 
fertilizers.  It  also  improves  the  mechanical  condition 
of  the  land.  In  dry  climates,  when  buried  in  the  soil, 
it  should,  when  fresh,  be  applied  to  the  crop  preceding 
grass,  but  its  presence  in  the  soil  in  a  form  so  bulky 
should  liberate  moisture  unduly,  through  the  resistance 
which  it  OiTers  to  the  influences  that  promote  impaction, 
but,  when  reduced,  it  may  be  applied  though  in  but  mod- 
erate quantities,  just  before  the  preparation  of  the  land 
for  the  crop,  or  while  it  is  being  so  prepared.  Farm- 
yard manure  has  in  it  of  course  all  the  essential  elements 
required  to  promote  growth  in  grasses. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  17 

If  nitrogen  is  needed  in  the  form  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers, it  is  better  to  apply  it  on  the  surface  after  sow- 
ing the  seed,  and  after  the  plants  have  begun  to  grow 
rather  than  before.  If  applied  sooner  there  ib  the  haz- 
ard that  it  would  be  washed  down  into  the  soil  and  sub- 
soil before  the  grass  roots  could  take  it  up,  and  this  haz- 
ard is  proportionate  to  the  amount  of  the  rainfall  at  such 
a  time.  It  may  be  applied  as  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate 
of  ammonia  or  in  various  other  forms.  When  phosphor- 
ic acid  is  wanted,  it  may  be  furnished  in  the  form  of 
mineral  phosphate,  ground  bone  or  basic  slag,  and  ap- 
plied while  preparing  the  soil,  more  especially  when 
about  to  harrow  it  not  long  prior  to  the  sowing  of  the 
seed.  Potash  may  be  applied  in  the  sulphate  or  muriate 
form,  as  Kainit,  or  as  wood  ashes,  and  like  phosphoric 
acid,  it  may  be  profitably  incorporated  in  the  soil  near 
its  surface. 

Seasons  for  Sowing. — Mature  teaches  some  lessons 
with  reference  to  the  seasons  at  which  seeds  may  be 
sown  that  may  be  studied  with  profit.  She  usually  scat- 
ters the  seeds  of  grasses  in  the  autumn.  Sometimes 
sprouting  follows  at  once,  and  when  it  does  the  young- 
plants  become  strong  before  the  arrival  of  winter.  But 
the  seeds  thus  sown  do  not  always  sprout  in  the  autumn, 
owing  to  want  of  moisture.  They  are,  however,  in 
that  condition  which  promotes  sprouting  in  the  early 
spring,  as  soon  as  plant  growth  begins,  because  of  the 
abundance  of  the  moisture  that  is  pretty  certain  to  be 
present  at  that  season.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  the 
best  time  to  sow  the  hardy  varieties  of  grasses  is  in  the 
autumn.  But,  when  thus  sown,  sufficient  time  should 
Grasses — 2. 


lg  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

be  given  to  the  young  plants  to  become  firmly  rooted 
before  the  arrival  of  winter.  When  they  cannot  be 
sown  thus  early,  it  is  usually  better  to  defer  sowing  until 
just  before  the  ground  freezes  in  the  late  autumn,  in 
localities  where  the  winters  are  stern.  Where  they  are 
open,  there  may  be  hazard  in  sowing  thus  late,  as,  dur- 
ing mild  spells,  the  seeds  may  sprout  and  perish  later, 
through  heaving  of  the  soil,  or  from  other  rauses.  But 
some  varieties  of  grasses  are  so  tender  as  to  render  advis- 
able the  sowing  of  these  only  in  the  spring. 

Notwithstanding  that  a  good  catch  of  the  hardy  va- 
riety of  grasses  is  more  assured  when  they  are  sown  in 
the  early  autumn,  it  may  not  always  be  desirable  to 
sow  them  then,  for  various  reasons.  The  nurse  crops 
with  which  they  are  commonly  sown  may  not  be  needed, 
the  weather  may  be  uncompromisingly  dry,  and  the  op- 
portunity may  not  be  present  for  putting  the  ground 
in  that  condition  which  is  necessary  to  render  growth 
reasonably  assured.  When  these  grasses  cannot  be  sown 
in  the  autumn,  the  aim  should  be  to  sow  them  in  the 
early  spring,  as  early  as  the  conditions  will  admit  of 
sowing  them.  The  varieties  are  but  few  indeed  that 
are  so  tender  that  they  will  take  injury  from  the  se- 
verity of  the  spring  weather.  When  sown  early,  they 
become  firmly  rooted  before  the  dry  weather  of  summer 
follows,  and  so  can  better  withstand  it.  Hence  it  is 
that  grasses  are  frequently  sown  with  advantage  on  the 
lingering  snows  of  winter  or  on  the  early  snows  of 
spring.  When  sown  on  the  undeparted  snows  of  win- 
ter, there  is  some  hazard  that  a  portion  of  the  seed,  at 
least,  may  be  carried  away  by  the  rapid  melting  of  the 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  19 

snows,  as,  when  warm  rains  hasten  the  departure  of 
these.  At  other  times  they  are  profitably  sown  quite 
as  early  or  nearly  so,  on  ground  in  a  honeycombed  con- 
dition. But  where  the  conditions  are  such  that  nature 
is  not  likely  to  provide  a  sufficient  covering  for  the  so-  ds 
after  they  have  been  sown,  the  sowing  should  be  deferred 
until  the  ground  can  be  covered  with  che  harrow. 

The  late  sowing  of  grasses  in  the  spring  may  succeed 
in  climates  which  have  considerable  rainfall  in  the  sum- 
mer, but  it  will  not  be  successful  in  those  opposite  in 
character.  The  most  hazardous  seasons  in  which  grasses 
can  be  sown  are  the  late  spring  and  the  early  summer. 

Methods  of  Sowing. — Grasses  are  usually  sown  by 
hand,  by  machines  run  by  hand,  or  by  the  seed  drill. 
Which  of  these  methods  of  sowing  will  be  preferable  will 
depend  upon  circumstances.  Hand  sowing  can  be  done 
under  some  conditions  in  which  neither  the  machines 
run  by  hand  nor  those  run  by  horses  can  be  used,  and 
because  of  this,  the  necessity  for  more  or  less  of  hand 
sowing  will  never  cease  to  exist. 

Sowing  by  hand  is  usually  a  necessity  when  the  seed  is 
sown  while  the  snow  is  yet  on  the  ground,  or  the  ground 
is  in  such  a  condition  that  hand  machines  may  not  be 
used  on  it.  It  may  also  be  practiced  when  sowing  cannot 
be  done  by  the  machines  referred  to  from  want  of  adap- 
tation in  these  for  sowing  certain  of  the  larger  kinds  of 
seeds.  The  sowing  of  grasses  by  hand  is  the  most  diffi- 
cult kind  of  hand  sowing.  To  do  it  well  usually  re- 
quires not  a  little  practice,  backed  up  by  dexterity  in 
acquiring  a  proper  grip  of  the  seed  between  the  thumb 
and  two  adjacent  fingers  and  an  easy  and  correct  swing 


20  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

of  the  hand.  Because  of  the  lightness  of  the  seeds  it 
is  not  easy  to  secure  evenness  of  cast  in  the  same.  The 
difficulty  in  this  respect  may  arise  from  the  improper 
character  of  the  swing  of  the  hand  or  from  the  in- 
fluence of  the  wind  on  the  seed  while  falling  or  from 
both  causes.  Because  of  the  influence  of  wind  a  calm 
time  should  he  preferred  for  the  sowing  of  grass  seeds 
by  hand  and  the  lighter  the  seeds  the  calmer  should  be 
the  time  chosen.  But  it  is  possible  to  sow  some  of  the 
heavier  of  the  grass  seeds  by  hand,  while  more  or  less 
wind  is  blowing,  if  the  sower  takes  advantage  of  the 
direction  of  the  wind  to  assist  in  carrying  the  seed. 

More  commonly  the  hand  sower  uses  but  one  hand 
when  sowing  grass  seeds.  When  one  cast  has  been  sown 
across  a  field  he  turns  around,  and  on  the  return  trip 
makes  the  seed  overlap  more  or  less  the  cast  sown  on  the 
forward  trip.  Those  who  can  sow  with  both  hands  make 
the  two  casts  at  one  trip,  and  consequently  sow  twice 
the  area  in  a  given  time.  When  both  hands  are  used 
in  sowing,  the  seed  is  carried  in  a  sheet,  *or  pack,  or 
box,  in  front  of  the  sower  and  suspended  from  the  shoul- 
ders. Such  a  sowing  sheet  or  sack  is  easily  improvised. 

WThen  the  ground  has  been  ploughed  in  ridges  of  more 
or  less  width,  hand  sowing  is  facilitated,  as  the  sower 
has  the  furrows  to  guide  him  in  walking  straight.  When 
these  are  but  twelve  feet  distant,  one  ridge  can  be  sown 
during  each  forward  or  return  trip  by  the  person  who 
sows  with  both  hands.  In  other  words  double  hand 
sowing  will  cover  a  strip  of  about  twelve  feet  at  one 
time.  Where  no  ridges  are  made  the  sower  will  prob- 
ably find  it  necessary  to  set  up  stakes  to  guide  him  as 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  21 

to  the  direction  to  take,  but  following  the  marks  made 
by  the  grain  drill  ma}7  sometimes  be  found  a  sufficient 
guide. 

The  hand  machine  most  in  favor  is  usually  spoken  of 
as  the  "wheelbarrow  seed  sower/'  from  the  fact  that  the 
distributor  of  the  seed  is  wheeled  over  the  ground  on 
a  light  hand  barrow.  The  distributor  usually  sows 
about  12  feet  in  width  each  time  it  passes  along  or  across 
the  field,  but  some  are  made  to  sow  a  wider  area.  This 
form  of  hand  machine  may  be  used  when  considerable 
wind  is  blowing,  as,  when  the  seed  falls  from  the  same, 
it  has  not  far  to  fall,  until  it  reaches  the  ground.  It 
sows  seed  evenly,  may  be  used  at  any  time  during  the 
day,  and  can  be  managed  by  a  person  not  skilled  in 
hand  sowing,  but  it  cannot  be  used  with  advantage 
when  the  soil  is  in  that  condition  that  would  cause  it 
to  cling  to  the  wheel  or  to  the  feet  of  the  sower  in  any 
considerable  quantities.  Other  kinds  of  hand  sowers 
have  been  used,  but  none  of  these  answer  the  purpose 
better  or  even  as  well  as  .the  hand  sower  referred  to. 
However,  hand  machines  which  are  strapped  to  the 
shoulder  and  are  operated  by  a  crank,  find  favor  with 
not  a  few,  and  they  are  certainly  very  suitable  for  scat- 
tering seed  over  lands  encumbered  by  "brush,"  that  is 
by  a  growth  of  young  trees  and  bushes. 

When  grass  seeds  are  sown  with  the  grain  drill  they 
are  more  commonly  sown  by  means  of  what  is  termed  a 
"grass  seed  sower  attachment,"  which  is  used  in  con- 
junction with  the  drill  while  the  latter  sows  grain,  and 
it  is  placed  so  as  to  drop  the  seeds  in  front  of  the  grain 
tubes  or  behind  them,  as  desired.  The  grass  seeds  thus 


22  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

sown  fall  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil.  When  they  fall 
before  the  grain  tubes  they  are  partially  covered.  When 
they  fall  behind  them  they  have  no  covering  except  such 
as  may  be  given  subsequently.  Some  "broadcast  seed- 
ers/' that  is,  seeders  which  sow  grain  by  scattering 
it  broadcast  are  also  furnished  with  grass  seed  attach- 
ments. Grass  seeds  are  sometimes  mixed  with  grain 
and  sown  with  the  same,  but  this  method  of  sowing  in 
many  instances  buries  the  seed  too  clceplv. 

The  sowing  of  grass  seeds  with  the  grain  drill  or  with 
the  grass  seed  attachment  to  the  same,  results  in  a  con- 
siderable saving  of  labor.  But  even  this  method  of  sow- 
ing them  cannot  be  said  to  be  perfected.  •  When  the  seed 
is  sown  along  with  the  grain,  in  addition  to  being  buried 
too  deeply  in  nearly  all  soils,  it  is  deposited  in  the  line 
of  the  grain  row,  hence  the  young  plants  are  crowded 
and  shaded  more  than  if  they  could  be  deposited  be- 
tween the  grain  rows.  And  when  the  seed  falls  on  the 
surface,  additional  covering  is  necessary.  If,  therefore, 
a  seed  drill  were  invented  that  would  deposit  grass  seeds 
between  the  grain  rows  and  while  the  grain  was  being 
sown,  and  that  would  cover  the  seed  nt  ai  y  desired 
depth,  in  tho  judgment  of  the  author  a  great  advance 
would  be  made  in  the  method  of  sowing  grass  seeds. 
More  perfect  machinery  is  also  wanted  for  the  even 
distribution  of  some  of  the  lighter  seeds,  as  for  instance 
the  seed  of  meadow  foxtail  (Alo-pccurus  pratensis). 
Such  seeds  do  not  feed  into  the  distributors  of  the  grass 
seeds  now  in  use  with  that  regularity  that  could  be  de- 
sired. But  one  make  at  least  of  the  hand  sower  which 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  23 

is  wheeled  over  the  ground  is  being  so  improved  that  it 
will  sow  almost  all  kinds  of  grass  seed. 

Depth  to  Bury  the  Seed. — The  depth  at  which  grass 
seeds  should  be  buried  will  be  influenced  by  the  size 
of  the  seed,  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  nature  of  the 
climate,  the  season  of  the  year  at  which  the  seed  is  sown 
and  the  relative  inherent  vigor  of  the  seed.  As  a  rule 
the  relation  between  the  size  of  the  seed  and  the  depth 
at  which  to  bury  it  is  both  close  and  intimate.  The 
larger  the  seed,  the  more  deeply  does  it  require  to  be 
buried,  and  the  smaller  it  is  the  more  shallow  the  cover- 
ing that  best  meets  the  conditions  of  growth.  But  the 
inherent  vigor  of  the  seed  has  also  a  qualifying  influ- 
ence. The  more  vigorous  the  seed  the  better  it  can 
withstand  burial  too  deep,  or  too  shallow  to  furnish  the 
best  conditions  for  growth. 

No  one  of  these  influences,  probably,  is  so  great  as 
that  of  soil  conditions.  As  a  rule,  the  lighter  the  soil, 
in  the  sense  of  its  being  sandy,  the  more  spongy  it  is  in 
the  sense  of  the  particles  lying  lightly  upon  each  other, 
and  the  less  capable  it  is  of  resisting  the  influences  of 
surface  evaporation,  the  more  deeply  should  the  seed 
be  buried  and  vice  versa.  It  would  probably  be  correct 
to  say  that  for  all  the  cultivated  grasses  some  covering 
would  be  preferable  to  none  at  all.  In  some  instances 
the  roller  following  the  sowing  of  the  seed,  prior  to 
the  falling  of  rain,  will  provide  a  sufficient  covering, 
and  there  are  instances  in  which  rain  alone  will  pro- 
vide a  covering.  Particularly  is  this  true  of  seeds  that 
are  sown  on  clay  soils  in  the  autumn  where  heavy 
rains  in  that  season  and  in  the  winter  following  tend 


24  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

to  pack  ill-drained  soils.  Usually  a  light  li arrow  with 
many  teeth  and  which  may  be  adjusted  at  any  angle 
desired  mav  be  made  to  furnish  a  sufficient  covering. 
But  there  are  soils  in  which  it  may  be  advantageous 
sometimes  to  burv  even  small  grass  seeds,  as  timothy 
and  alsike  clover,  to  the  depth  of  two  inches  or  even 
to  a  greater  depth. 

The  more  moist  the  climate,  the  more  shallow  rela- 
tively may  grass  seeds  be  covered.  The  reasons  for  this 
will  be  at  once  apparent.  The  more  frequent  the  rains, 
the  more  copious  the  dews,  the  more  humid  the  air,  the 
more  moderate  the  temperatures,  the  nearer  to  the  sur- 
face can  the  young  plants  secure  the  requisite  moisture, 
because  of  the  extent  to  which  under  the  conditions  just 
stated  the  influences  which  produce  it  fall  upon  and 
penetrate  the  soil,  and  because  of  the  slow  yielding  up  of 
moisture  to  the  influences  which  produce  surface  evap- 
oration. Hence  it  is  that  grass  seeds  and  indeed  all  seeds 
cannot  be  best  planted  at  the  same  depth  in  all  localities 
in  which  the  climatic  conditions  differ,  even  though  the 
other  conditions  should  be  the  same. 

From  what  has  been  said  with  reference  to  the  in- 
fluence of  soil  and  climate  on  the  depth  to  which  seed 
should  be  planted,  it  will  be  apparent,  that  when  grass 
seeds  are  sown  at  those  seasons  when  moisture  is  abun- 
dant they  will  need  less  of  a  covering  than  when  sown 
at  other  seasons.  Thus  it  is  that  the  seeds  of  many 
grasses  will  grow  with  reasonable  certainty  in  certain 
areas,  when  sown  in  the  spring  on  late  snows  and  on 
ground  honeycombed  with  the  frost,  without  any  other 
covering  than'  nature  can  give  them.  When  sown  on 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  25 

late  snows  the  seeds  are  carried  down  with  the  melt- 
ing of  the  snows,  and  are  lodged  in  the  small  crevices 
in  the  soil,  or  are  brought  so  closely  in  contact  with 
the  soil  that  when  moist  weather  follows  they  germinate 
successfully.  Such  germination  is  all  the  more  success- 
ful when  the  seeds  are  sown  on  ground  on  which  a  nurse 
crop  is  growing,  since  the  shade  it  furnishes  at  the  sea- 
son of  germination  is  helpful  to  the  growth  of  the  young 
grass  plants. 

When  grass  seeds  are  sown  quite  early  in  the  spring, 
they  usually  require  less  covering  than  when  sown  later. 
The  roots  find  moisture  near  the  surface  more  readily 
at  that  season,  and  the  young  plants  are  less  liable  to 
be  injured  by  the  drought  of  summer.  The  later  they 
are  sown,  therefore,  in  the  spring,  the  more  deeply  rela- 
tively should  the  covering  be.  Unless  when  sown  quite 
early  in  the  spring  the  aim  should  be  to  use  a  harrow 
in  covering  the  seed,  and  the  necessity  for  careful  har- 
rowing increases  with  the  advance  of  the  season.  When 
grass  seeds  are  sown  in  the  autumn  an  intermediate  cov- 
ering is  usually  preferable,  as,  if  covered  shallow  the 
seed  may  not  find  sufficient  moisture,  and  if  covered 
deeply  the  growth  may  prove  insufficient  to  fortify  the 
plants  to  meet,  in  the  best  manner,  the  adverse  condi- 
tions of  winter  weather.  But  there  may  be  good  rea- 
sons in  some  instances  for  covering  grass  seeds  slightly 
or  deeply  when  sown  in  the  fall. 

The  inherent  vigor  of  the  plants  has  much  to  do  with 
the  depth  to  which  the  seed  ought  to  be  buried  in  order 
to  secure  the  most  successful  germination.  Some  grass 
seeds  have  much  power  to  grow  without  any  covering  at 


26  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

all  save  wh'at  nature  can  bring  to  them.  Such,  for  in- 
stance, is  blue  grass  (Poo,  pratensis).  Because  of  this 
power  it  will  sometimes  take  possession  of  soils  with- 
out being  sown  at  all  save  by  the  hand  of  nature.  Par- 
ticularly is  this  true  of  lands  that  have  produced  forest, 
in  areas  which  abounded  at  one  time  in  the  eastern  and 
middle  states,  and  also  in  the  provinces  of  Canada  east 
from  Manitoba.  On  these  areas  this  grass  usually  takes 
complete  possession  of  the  soil,  to  the  exclusion  of  near- 
ly all  the  other  forms  of  vegetable  life,  and  without  any 
aid  from  man  except  in  removing  the  shade  of  trees 
with  the  axe,  and  also  that  of  large  and  coarse  forms  of 
vegetation,  as  bushes  for  instance,  by  allowing  animals 
to  graze  upon  them.  Timothy  will  grow  on  such  lands 
and  in  some  instances  without  being  covered  artificially, 
but  it  will  usually  grow  more  successfully  when  pro- 
vided with  a  slight  covering.  Blue  grass  evidently 
has  greater  inherent  power  to  grow  than  timothy,  a 
fact  that  is  evidenced  in  the  ability  of  blue  grass  in 
certain  soils  to  crowd  out  timothy  in  pastures,  to  the 
extent  of  taking  complete  possession  of  the  soil.  The 
possession  of  inherent  power  to  grow  in  a  marked  de- 
gree in  unfavorable  conditions  enables  many  forms  of 
weed  life  to  get  a  hold  on  the  soil  without  any  covering 
being  furnished  to  the  seeds  other  than  nature  gives 
them. 

Methods  of  Covering. — When  grass  seeds  are  sown 
while  the  snows  yet  linger  on  the  ground  honeycombed 
with  the  frost,  no  covering,  can  be  given  to  them  other 
than  that  which  nature  furnishes,  nor,  as  previously  in- 
timated, is  it  required.  Nor  is  any  other  covering  need- 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  27 

ed  in  many  instances  when  these  are  sown  in  the  au- 
tumn, with  or  without  a  nurse  crop,  in  a  climate  that 
is  humid,  and  especially  when  rains  are  frequent, 
providing  the  seed  is  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground 
has  been  made  ready  to  receive  it  and  before  rain  has 
fallen  on  the  same.  The  first  rain  that  falls  would 
seem  to  provide  a  sufficient  covering  for  the  seed.  But 
there  are  instances  when  a  light  harrow  should  be  run 
over  the  ground.  In  the  renovation  of  pastures,  seeds 
which  fall  to  the  ground  subsequent  to  maturity  are 
able  to  grow  without  any  covering. 

When  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  spring  on  a  winter  crop 
after  the  ground  has  become  settled  a  heavy  harrow 
will  usually  cover  the  seed  better  than  n  light  one,  and 
sometimes  it  may  be  even  necessary  to  weight  the  har- 
row. When  it  is  sown  in  the  spring  wiih  or  without 
a  nurse  crop,  when  the  seed  falls  on  the  surface,  in  near- 
ly all  instances  it  is  advantageous  to  cover  with  the 
roller  or  the  harrow.  On  heavy  soils  well  supplied 
with  rain  in  the  spring,  covering  by  rolling  will  usually 
suffice.  But  in  loam  soils  when  the  rain  is  not  abun- 
dant, and  more  especially  when  the  summers  are  hot 
and  dry,  the  seed  should  be  covered  with  the  harrow. 
On  firm  soils  the  smoothing  harrow  will  probably  do  the 
work. better  than  a  heavy  harrow,  as  it  will  bury  the 
seeds  less  deeply.  But  .on  soils  the  opposite  a  heavy 
harrow  is  to  be  preferred  because  of  the  greater  depth 
to  which  it  buries  the  seeds. 

When  the  seed  is  deposited  along  with  grain  sown 
with  the  drill,  or  with  the  broadcast  seeder,  it  may  not 
be  necessary  to  harrow  the  ground  further,  but  if  sub- 


28  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

sequent  harrowing  will  prove  helpful  to  the  growth  of 
tlie  grain,  which  it  does  in  some  instances,  it  will  also 
prove  helpful  to  the  growth  of  the  grasses  sown  along 
with  it. 

A  brush  is  sometimes  used  to  cover  grass  seeds  and 
with  good  results  as  when  but  a  shallow  covering  is 
needed,  but  frequently  it  is  not  easy  to  get  a  small 
bushy  tree  that  will  cover  a  wide  strip  at  one  stroke,  and 
that  will  leave  the  land  smooth  and  even.  This  method 
of  covering  grass  seed  is  now  seldom  or  never  resorted 
to  when  a  good  and  suitable  harrow  can  be  secured. 

Amounts  of  Seed  to  Sow. — It  is  not  possible  to  state 
the  amount  of  seed  of  any  kind  of  grass  that  would 
prove  satisfactory  in  all  areas,  since  the  amount  that  is 
most  suitable  for  one  locality  or  for  a  certain  kind  of 
soil  would  be  too  little  for  another  locality  or  for  a 
different  kind  of  soil,  and  would  probably  be  an  excess- 
ive amount  under  yet  other  conditions  of  climate  and 
soil.  While  9  pounds  of  timothy  may  be  mentioned 
as  a  suitable  quantity  to  sow  under  average  conditions, 
under  other  conditions  6  pounds  will  suffice,  and  yet 
again  it  may  be  advantageous  to  sow  12  pounds. 

The  following  rules  may  be  submitted  as  a  general 
guide  in  determining  the  amounts  of  seed  to  sow :  1.  The 
more  stern  and  rigorous  the  climatic  conditions,  the 
larger  the  amounts  of  seed  that  should  be  sown  to  allow 
for  the  loss  of  some  of  the  weaker  plants.  2.  The  more 
suitable  the  natural  soil  conditions  for  any  kind  of  grass, 
and  the  more  perfect  the  preparation  of  the  soil  to  re- 
ceive the  seed,  the  less  the  quantity  that  is  required,  for 
the  reason  first,  that  these  conditions  insure  growth 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  m  29 

from  a  higher  per  centage  of  the  seeds  than  if  the  con- 
ditions were  the  opposite,  and  second,  that  the  plants 
require  more  room  for  development  because  of  the  great- 
er size  to  which  they  grow.  3.  The  finer  the  charac- 
ter of  the  fodder  wanted  from  grasses  fed  in  the  green 
or  in  the  cured  form,  the  larger  the  amounts  of  seed 
that  are  required.  4.  When  sowing  varieties  which 
have  the  power  to  multiply  plants  as  they  grow  by  means 
of  creeping  rootstocks  moderate  amounts  of  seed  are 
to  be  preferred  to  large  amounts,  unless  when  these 
are  sown  in  short  rotations,  lest  they  should  soon  be- 
come too  thick  and  matted  to  produce  returns  that  would 
prove  entirely  satisfactory.  5.  When  grasses  are  sown 
alone  more  seed  is  required  of  the  variety  sown  than 
if  the  same  variety  were  sown  in  combination  with 
other  grasses,  and  the  larger  the  number  of  grasses  in 
the  combination  the  less  the  relative  proportion  of  each 
that  should  be  sown.  6.  When  laying  down  land  in  per- 
manent pasture  larger  amounts  should  be  sown  of  those 
varieties  which  are  known  to  have  the  highest  adapta- 
tion and  value  for  the  conditions  under  which  they  are 
sown  and  vice  versa.  7.  The  quantity  of  seed  required 
usually  increases  with  the  size  of  the  seed  of  any  va- 
riety and  the  opposite  of  this  is  also  true.  8.  In  semi- 
arid  climates  sparse  or  only  moderately  thick  seeding 
is  preferable  to  thick  seeding,  as  the  degree  of  the 
moisture  obtainable,  is  then  more  perfectly  adjusted  to 
the  needs  of  the  individual  plants.  Notwithstanding 
that  it  is  not  possible  to  state  the  amount  of  seed  of 
any  given  variety  of  seed  that  will  answer  equally  well 
for  all  areas,  something  will  be  said  about  the  amounts 


30  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

that  will  be  at  least  approximately  suitable  under  vary- 
ing conditions  when  treating  of  the  respective  grasses 
which  will  be  later  discussed  with  some  degree  of  mi- 
nuteness. 

Sowing  With  or  Without  a  Nurse  Crop. — It  is  more 
common  to  sow  grass  seeds  with  than  without  a  nurse 
crop.  A  nurse  crop  is  one  which  is  supposed  to  benefit 
the  crop  sown  along  with  it  for  a  time,  by  the  shade 
which  it  affords,  and  in  some  instances  by  the  shelter 
which  it  furnishes  from  the  sweeping  winds  of  winter, 
as,  when  grasses  are  grown  along'  with  some  kind  of 
winter  crop.  The  practice  rests  on  premises  that  are 
correct.  Notwithstanding,  some  writers  favor  sowing 
the  seeds  alone  and  there  may  be  instances  in  which  it- 
would  be  commendable  to  sow  them  thus.  But  as  a  rule 
the  practice  of  sowing  grasses  with  a  nurse  crop  is  likely 
to  continue  in  favor  with  a  great  majority  of  those  who 
till  the  soil. 

The  benefits  arising  from  sowing  grasses  with  a  nurse 
crop  include  the  following:  1.  When  thus  sown  shade 
is  furnished  for  the  young  plants  while  they  are  yet 
tender  until  they  become  firmly  rooted  in  the  soil. 
2.  The  shade  thus  furnished  is  adverse  to  the  crusting 
of  the  soil,  a  condition  which  when  present  is  full  of 
hazard  to  young  grass  plants,  especially  when  they  are 
exposed  at  such  times  to  hot  suns.  3.  Usually  the  nurse 
crop  can  be  grown  as  well  with  the  grasses  present  as 
when  these  are  absent,  but  to  this  there  may  be  some 
exceptions.  For  instance,  when  timothy  is  sown  at 
the  same  time  as  winter  wheat,  it  sometimes  grows  so 
vigorously  that  the  yield  of  the  wheat  is  somewhat  re- 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  31 

duced.  But  when  this  happens,  compensation  is  ob- 
tained in  part  at  least,  by  the  added  value  given  to  the 
straw.  The  leading  objections  to  sowing  thus  are:  1. 
That  sometimes  the  grass  or  grasses  are  weakened  and 
partially  destroyed  by  excessive  shade  in  the  nurse  crop. 
2.  That  in  other  instances  the  vitality  of  the  grasses  is 
so  weakened  through  the  consumption  of  moisture  by 
the  nurse  crop,  especially  during  the  ripening  period, 
that  when  the  nurse  crop  is  removed  when  ripe,  the 
hot  sunshine  prevailing  at  the  time  will  in  some  areas 
and  in  some  seasons  kill  a  portion  of  the  plants.  Some- 
times the  destruction  is  total.  3.  When  the  nurse  crop 
lodges  some  considerable  time  before  it  is  ready  to  be 
harvested,  the  grasses  sown  with  it  are  pretty  certain 
to  be  smothered  by  the  nurse  crop.  Such  lodging  may 
be  prevented  by  pasturing  the  grain  crop  for  a  time  in 
the  early  stages  of  the  growth  of  the  same. 

The  benefits  from  sowing  without  a  nurse  crop  include 
the  following:  1.  In  some  instances  a  more  vigorous 
stand  may  be  secured,  since  the  plants  have  the  full 
benefit  of  unimpeded  sunlight  and  of  all  the  moisture 
in  the  soil.  Especially  is  this  true  when  the  plants  are 
sown  on  clean  soil  and  start  well  when  they  begin  to 
grow.  2.  When  hay  of  a  certain  kind  is  wanted  it 
may  be  obtained  one  year  sooner,  in  some  instances, 
when  sown  without  a  nurse  crop,  as  for  instance,  when 
timothy  is  sown  alone  in  the  autumn,  or  when  certain  of 
the  rye  grasses  are  sown  in  the  spring.  3.  A  stand  of 
grasses  may  sometimes  be  secured  when  thus  sown 
under  conditions  of  weather  that  would  prove  fatal  to 
grasses  sown  with  a  nurse  crop,  more  especially  wher 


32  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

there  is  but  little  moisture  in  the  soil.  The  objections  to 
sowing  thus  are:  1.  In  a  majority  of  instances  only  a 
partial  crop  of  grass, is  obtained  the  first  season,  hence, 
the  value  that  would  have  accrued  from  a  nurse  crop  had 
it  been  grown  is  reduced  in  proportion  as  the  grass  crop 
is  short  in  its  yield.  When  it  is  necessary  to  take  one 
season  to  secure  a  stand  of  grass  without  getting  a  re- 
turn from  it,  the  question  arises  as  to  whether  food  for 
stock  should  not  be  grown  in  some  other  way.  2.  In 
many  instances,  weeds  grow,  which  if  not  checked  would 
shade  the  grass  quite  as  much  as  the  grain,  and  would 
also  mature  seeds  the  plants  from  which  the  following- 
year  would  greatly  reduce  and  injure  the  hay  crop.  This 
can  be  prevented  of  course  by  mowing  them  off  and  al- 
lowing them  to  lie  on  the  ground  to  form  a  mulch  when 
not  too  dense,  but  this  of  course  entails  considerable  la- 
bor. 3.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  young  plants, 
when  sown  thus,  are  killed  out  partially  or  wholly  in 
spots  by  the  hot  sunshine  on  an  encrusted  soil.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  the  practice  of  sowing  grasses 
with  a  nurse  crop  is  likely  to  prevail  generally  in  the 
future  as  in  the  past. 

The  nurse  crops  that  may  be  used  are  various.  They 
include  all  or  nearly  all  the  small  cereal  grains;  in 
some  instances  rape  and  in  others  grains  grown  in  mix- 
tures for  soiling  food.  Winter  rye  is  one  of  the  most 
favorable  crops  with  which  to  sow  grasses,  since  these 
may  in  many  instances  be  sown  in  the  fall  or  early  spring 
as  may  be  necessary.  It  docs  not  stool  as  much  as  some 
grains,  hence  it  injures  the  young  grass  less  by  excessive 
shade,  and  it  is  harvested  early,  thus  giving  the  grass 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  33 

plants  the  benefit  of  more  sunshine  and  moisture  than 
would  be  possible  when  sown  with  a  crop  of  grain  in  the 
spring.  Spring  rye  also  answers  the  purpose  well,  but 
the  grass  seeds  can  only  be  sown  upon  it  in  the  spring, 
and  usually  not  so  early  as  on  winter  rye.  Winter 
wheat  makes  nearly  as  good  a  nurse  crop  as  winter  rye, 
but  it  stools  more  and  is  not  harvested  quite  so  early. 
Other  winter  crops,  as  for  instance  winter  barley  or  win- 
ter oats  make  good  nurse  crops  where  these  can  be  grown, 
as  in  the  southern  states.  But  the  fact  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  when  sowing  grasses  with  winter  crops  adverse 
influences  which  injure  the  nurse  crop,  as  cold  winds  or 
heaving  through  freezing  and  thawing  alternately  will 
also  in  a  measure  injure  the  crops  sown  with  these, 
though  probably  to  a  less  extent.  Barley  stands  rela- 
tively high  as  a  nurse  crop  for  grasses.  It  does  not  shade 
them  for  so  long  a  period  as  some  other  nurse  crops,  nor 
is  the  shade  so  dense,  since  the  growth  of  barley  is  not  so 
tall  as  that  of  other  cereals ;  more  sunlight  is  admitted 
during  the  maturing  period  of  the  barley.  Oats  are 
probably  less  favorable  to  the  growth  of  young  grasses 
than  any  of  the  other  small  grains  except  peas.  They 
stool  more  than  other  grains,  and  are  of  more  leafy 
growth,  hence  they  provide  a  denser  shade,  and  in  matur- 
ing they  draw  heavily  on  the  moisture  of  the  soil.  But; 
oats  may  in  manv  instances  be  profitably  used  as  a  nurse 
crop  by  sowing  a  less  quantity  of  the  seed  than  is  usual 
and  then  cutting  the  oats  for  hay  as  soon  as  they  are 
fully  in  head.  When  they  are  thus  harvested,  the  drain 
of  soil  moisture  so  rapid  during  the  maturing  period  is 
prevented.  To  preclude  such  a  drain,  when  it  can  be 
Grasses — 3 


34  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

done  without  loss,  is  usually  greatly  advantageous  to 
grasses  sown  with  a  nurse  crop,  since  the  weather  is 
usually  both  hot  and  dry  as  the  harvest  season  ap- 
proaches. The  chief  objection  to  flax  as  a  nurse  crop  is 
the  late  season  at  which  it  is  sown,  but  some  authorities 
cherish  the  opinion  that  there  is  something  in  the  flax 
itself  that  is  not  favorable  to  the  growth  of  grasses  after 
the  crop  has  been  removed.  Nevertheless,  the  sowing  of 
grasses  with  flax  is  frequently  attended  with  a  fair  meas- 
ure of  success.  Experience  in  growing  grasses  with  a 
rape  crop  is  limited,  but  in  some  instances  it  has  suc- 
ceeded. The  same  is  true  of  sowing  them  with  mixed 
crops  grown  for  grain  or  for  soiling.  The  one  objection 
to  growing  them  thus  is  found  in  the  greater  relative 
thickness  to  which  such  crops  are  usually  sown.  But 
in  the  case  of  soiling  crops,  the  removal  of  these  before 
maturity  is  so  far  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  young 
plants.  Peas  and  vetches,  when  sown  to  produce 
grain  are  usually  hurtful  to  grasses  sown  with  them, 
since  they  nearly  always  lodge  some  considerable  time 
before  they  mature.  But  in  some  instances  grasses  and 
also  clovers  are  sown  along  with  grain  or  forage  plants 
sown  alone  or  in  combinations  to  provide  grazing  for 
horses,  cattle,  sheep  or  swine.  When  such  grazing  is 
grown  it  is  more  commonly  on  the  humus  soils  of  the 
prairies  and  in  areas  in  which  the  rainfall  is  less  than 
normal.  Grasses  and  also  clovers  are  sown  on  these  in 
the  usual  way  when  the  forage  crop  is  sown.  As  soon  as 
the  grain  has  become  well  started  the  animals  are 
turned  in  to  graze  upon  it.  In  some  instances  a  better 
and  surer  stand  may  be  obtained  than  from  sowing  the 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  35 

grass  seeds  in  the  ordinary  way.  For  the  further  dis- 
cussion of  this  question  see  page  180  in  the  book  "For- 
age Crops  Other  than  Grasses,"  written  hy  the  author. 

Sowing  Grasses  Alone  or  in  Combinations. — Whether 
any  kind  of  grass  should  he  sown  alone  or  along  with 
other  grasses  depends  upon  the  object,  or  objects,  for 
which  it  is  grown ;  and  also  on  the  degree  of  its  adapta- 
tion to  the  locality. 

When  any  variety  is  grown  for  seed  it  is  usually  sown 
alone,  but  in  some  few  instances  certain  varieties  may  be 
sown  in  combination  even  when  seed  is  sought.  Tim- 
othy is  frequently  sown  with  medium  red  clover.  The 
year  after  sowing  the  seed  the  crop  is  cut  once,  and  in 
some  instances  twice,  for  hay.  During  several  subse- 
quent and  successive  seasons  it  may  be  practicable  to 
harvest  the  timothy  for  seed.  But  to  growing  grasses 
together  for  seed  there  is  the  strong  objection,  first,  that 
they  produce  seed  less  perfectly  when  grown  thus,  be- 
cause of  the  thick  growth  produced  by  mixtures ;  second, 
that  in  many  instances  they  do  not  ripen  their  seeds  at 
the  same  time ;  and  third,  that  it  would  prove  a  difficult, 
if  not,  indeed,  an  impossible,  task  to  separate  many 
kinds  of  seeds  when  thus  harvested  together,  they  arc 
so  nearly  alike  in  size. 

When  grown  for  hay  it  is  common  to  sow  grasses  in 
mixtures  and  these  mixtures  frequently  contain  also 
the  seeds  of  certain  of  the  clovers.  These  mixtures  usual- 
ly yield  more  and  produce  hay  of  finer  growth  than 
when  sown  alone.  But  when  sowing  two  or  more  va- 
rieties together  it  is  usually  better  to  select  those 'which 
mature  about  the  same  time,  that  they  may  be  har- 


3j  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

vested  when  each  variety  has  reached  that  stage  of 
growth  when  it  is  best  fitted  for  making  good  hay. 
Some  of  the  less  important  of  these,  combinations  will 
be  referred  to  later,  when  discussing  certain  of  the  more 
important  of  the  grasses. 

When  pastures  are  wanted  the  grasses  sown  to  produce 
them  are  generally  sown  in  combination.  To  make  per- 
manent pastures  they  are  nearly  always  sown  thus. 
Sometimes  it  may  be  advisable  to  sow  but  one  variety  to 
produce  pasture  either  temporary  or  permanent  in  char- 
acter because  of  the  peculiar  adaptation  of  the  same  to 
the  climatic  and  also  to  the  soil  conditions.  Kentucky 
blue  grass  (Poa  prat6nsis),  timothy  (Phleum  pratense), 
Russian  brome  grass  (Bromus  inermis)  and  Johnson 
grass  (Sorghum  lialapense)  are  frequently  sown  thus. 
But  in  a  great  majority  of  instances  it  is  advisable  to 
sow  grasses  in  combinations  to  make  permanent  pas- 
tures and  the  larger  the  number  of  the  grasses  that  can 
be  successfully  grown  in  these  the  more  valuable  are 
they.  When  sown  thus  they  not  only  produce  more  pas- 
ture than  one  variety  would,  but  they  produce  it  more 
continuously  through  the  season  and  for  a  longer  period. 
This  arises  first,  from  the  denser  character  of  the 
growth ;  second,  from  the  different  parts  -of  the  season 
when  each  variety  is  at  its  best,  and  third,  from  the 
greater  durability  of  some  varieties  as  compared  with 
others.  When  determining  the  grasses  which  should 
be  sown  in  combination,  the  aim  should  be  'to  sow  only 
such  varieties  as  will  produce  relatively  well  under  the 
conditions  present  and  that  are  not  short  lived.  While 
it  may  be  proper  in  some  instances  to  sow  ninny  vario 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  37 

tics,  in  other  instances  and  indeed  generally  but  a  lim- 
ited number  of  varieties  should  be  chosen,  and  yet  again 
but  one  variety.  It  would  seem  to  be  correct  to  say  that 
when  determining  which  grasses  should  be  sown  in 
combination  pastures,  adaptation  should  be  the  first  con- 
sideration, intrinsic  value  for  the  end  sought  the  sec- 
ond, and  permanence  in  growth  the  third.  Notwith- 
standing there  may  be  instances  in  which  it  is  wise  to 
sow  freely  in  the  mixture  some  short  lived  variety  to 
provide  abundant  grazing  while  the  slower  growing 
varieties  are  becoming  established. 

The  Grazing  of  Meadows. — The  way  in  which  mead- 
ows are  grazed  has  a  far  more  important  influence  on 
their  productiveness  than  is  generally  supposed.  The 
practice  of  grazing  them  closely  in  the  autumn  is  quite 
common  and  this  is  frequently  done  the  autumn  imme- 
diately following  the  sowing  of  the  seeds. 

When  thus  grazed  the  vitality  of  the  plants  is  less- 
ened. The  protection  which  the  autumn  growth  fur- 
nishes being  thus  removed,  the  roots  of  the  plants  are 
more  exposed  to  the  severity  of  the  winter  weather  than 
they  would  otherwise  be,  and,  in  consequence,  they 
grow  less  vigorously  than  they  otherwise  would  the  fol- 
lowing season.  Severe  grazing  of  newly  sown  meadows 
in  the  autumn  sometimes  leads  to  their  destruction  be- 
fore one  crop  of  hay  has  been  grown.  Of  course,  all 
grass  plants  are  not  equally  injured  by  such  grazing, 
but  there  is  probably  no  variety  the  yield  of  which  will 
not  be  lessened  the  following  season  when  thus  closely 
grazed  unless  the  season  and  other  conditions  are  un- 
usual Iv  favorable. 


38  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

When  meadows  are  not  thus  closely  grazed  in  the 
autumn  the  grass  starts  much  more  quickly  in  the  spring 
than  it  would  under  conditions  the  opposite.  The  young 
shoots  are  protected  from  the  cold  winds  and  the  early 
frosts  which  retard  growth  at  that  season.  They  are 
thus  protected  by  the  aftermath  of  the  previous  season, 
which  acts  also  as  a  mulch  and  thus  retards  surface  evap- 
oration in  a  marked  degree.  The  increase  in  the  yields 
from  the  protection  furnished  by  aftermath  is  in  sonic 
instances  as  much  as  50  per  cent. 

But  it  does  not  follow  that  meadows  should  never  be 
grazed  after  harvest.  In  some  seasons  the  growth  of  the 
aftermath  will  be  so  vigorous  that  during  the  following 
winter  the  grass  in  at  least  portions  of  the  meadow 
would  be  smothered,  and  in  other  portions  growth  would 
be  retarded  by  the  excessive  amount  of  the  mulch  pro- 
duced, and  the  hazard  is  greater  with  free-growing 
plants,  as  clover,  and  in  countries  subject  to  heavy  falls 
of  snow.  Moderate  pasturing,  therefore,  is  frequently 
helpful,  but  the  aim  should  be  to  graze  meadows  early 
rather  than  late  in  the  autumn.  Nor  should  they  be 
grazed  when  the  ground  is  so  wet  that  it  will  poach 
through  the  sinking  of  the  feet  of  the  animals  which 
graze  upon  it.  Grazing  meadows  thus  on  clay  soils 
especially  would  be  highly  injurious  to  them.  It  should 
also  be  remembered  that  the  more  closely  animals  graze 
the  more  will  the  meadows  be  injured  by  such  grazing. 
Because  of  this,  grazing  with  cattle  is  less  injurious  than 
grazing:  with  sheep.  The  grazing  of  meadows,  there- 
fore, after  harvest  is  usually  injurious  in  proportion  as  it 
is  late  and  close,  as  the  plants  grazed  are  lacking  in  in- 


GENERAL,  PRINCIPLES.  39 

herent  vigor  and  in  ability  to  grow  quickly,  as  the  soils 
are  wet  and  heavy  of  texture,  and  as  the  winter  weather 
is  severe  ajid  the  summer  weather  dry. 

The  Grazing  of  Pastures.— Much  of  what  has  heen 
said  in  the  preceding  section  on  the  grazing  of  meadows 
will  also  apply  to  the  grazing  of  pastures.  But  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  latter  is  likely  to  he  injured  more  hy 
excessive  grazing  than  that  of  the  former.  Grazing  is 
excessive  when  it  lessens  the  possible  production  of  the 
pasture,  but  it  may  not  be  easy  to  determine  in  many 
instances  when  that  point  is  reached  beyond  which  fur- 
ther grazing  would  be  excessive,  since  ivhat  would  be 
in  excess  in  a  season  characterized  by  drought  would 
not  be  so  in  one  characterized  by  an  abundant  rain- 
fall. 

Close  grazing  injures  pastures  by  weakening  their 
capacity  to  grow,  by  increasing  their  exposure  to  injury 
through  surface  evaporation,  by  removing  what  would 
prove  a  protection  to  them  in  winter,  and  in  some  in- 
stances by  preventing  the  plants  from  re-seeding. 

That  plants  breathe  through  the  medium  of  the  leaves 
is  well  known.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  strength 
of  the  plant,  when  amply  supplied  with  food  and  mois- 
ture will  be  proportionate  to  the  extent  of  the  surface 
through  which  it  breathes.  This  explains  in  part  at 
least  why  a  larger  amount  of  food  will  be  furnished  by 
grass  plants  from  a  given  area  under  normal  condi- 
tions when  mowed  than  when  grazed.  But  this  result 
will  probably  be  modified  when  moisture  is  insufficient. 
Consequently,  the  closer  the  grazing  the  less  ordinarily 
will  be  the  production  of  the  pastures. 


40  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

When  grasses  are  kept  constantly  bare,  surface  evap- 
oration is  more  rapid  than  it  would  otherwise  be,  and  be- 
cause of  this  the  grasses  will  suffer  sooner  from  a  de- 
ficiency of  moisture.  The  earlier  in  the  season,  there- 
fore, that  close  grazing  begins,  and  the  more  persistently 
that  it  is  followed,  for  one  season  and  for  successive 
seasons  the  more  is  productive  power  in  the  pastures 
weakened.  In  climates  in  which  the  supply  of  moisture 
is  ample  the  mistake  of  too  close  grazing  is  not  nearly  so 
serious  as  in  those  opposite  in  character,  but  in  any 
climate  it  lessens  productiveness. 

When  the  grasses  enter  the  winter  eaten  down  to  the 
ground,  or  nearly  so,  they  not  only  suffer  more  from 
exposure  than  they  would  were  they  protected  by  a  self 
provided  covering,  but  as  in  the  case  of  meadows,  they 
spring  up  more  quickly  and  more  vigorously  in  the 
spring.  The  difference  in  both  respects  is  marked.  As 
a  result,  earlier  grazing  is  possible,  and  the  animals  thus 
grazed  are  not  so  liable  to  injury  from  a  too  lax  con- 
dition of  the  bowels,  as  if  turned  out  onto  grazing  in  the 
spring  consisting  only  of  fresh  grass ;  the  old  grass  which 
is  eaten  along  with  the  new  militates  against  such  a  con- 
dition. 

The  hindrance  to  the  re-seeding  of  grass  plants  in  pas- 
tures of  but  short  duration  is  not  serious,  since  they 
are  sown  to  be  broken  up  again.  2s"or  is  it  so  greatly 
important  in  permanent  pastures  laid  down  by  man, 
since  the  hand  that  sowed  the  seed  which  made  these  can 
add  more  seed  from  time  to  time  as  occasion  may  require. 
But  with  permanent  pastures  made  by  nature,  as  on 
ranges,  this  question  becomes  one  of  great  significance. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  41 

.Range  pastures  cannot  be  kept  from  deteriorating  where 
re-seeding  through  the  processes  of  nature  is  hindered  by 
close  grazing. 

Pastures  are  grazed  under  improper  conditions  if 
grazed  when  too  wet  or  when  too  much  frozen.  When 
the  soil  is  too  wet  the  ground  poaches,  and  in  some  in- 
stances becomes  impacted.  Both  conditions  are  adverse 
to  growth.  The  injury  from  such  pasturing  on  very  stiff 
soils  may  extend  over  years.  The  reasons  for  the  in- 
jury to  pastures  from  close  grazing  when  the  ground  is 
hard  frozen  are  not  so  apparent,  but  the  fact  of  such 
injury  cannot  be  doubted,  nor  should  the  fact  be  over- 
looked that  all  the  influences  unfavorable  to  production 
in  pastures  just  so  far  encourage  the  growth  of  weeds  in 
these. 

Renovating  Meadows. — Since  meadows  are  in  a  great 
majority  of  instances  of  but  limited  duration,  the  at- 
tempt is  seldom  made  to  renovate  them.  More  com- 
monly when  the  production  on  these  falls  below  tne  line 
of  profits,  they  are  overturned  with  the  plough.  But  in 
some  instances  the  stand  of  grass  secured  at  the  first  is 
only  partial,  and  for  various  reasons  it  may  be  desirable 
to  improve  it.  In  other  instances  the  stand  may  be  good 
but  the  production  is  low  from  want  of  plant  food  in 
the  soil.  In  these  it  may  be  desirable  to  stimulate 
growth,  and  in  yet  other  instances,  owing  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  getting  a  stand,  the  aim  is  to  prolong  the  period 
of  productiveness  through  what  is  termed  self  -seeding ; 
that  is,  renewal  from  seed  which  falls  from  the  plants  ID 
the  meadow. 

When  the  stand  of  grasses  is  but  partial,  as  when,  for 


42  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

instance,  it  grows  in  the  lower  lands  and  fails  on  the 
higher  ground  through  drought  or  poverty  of  soil,  a  full 
stand  may  sometimes  be  obtained  by  simply  adding  more 
seed,  and  providing  the  same  with  a  covering.  If  the 
stand  on  the  spots  that  need  renewal  is  partial;  that  is 
to  say,  if  there  are  plants  there  but  growing  too  thinly, 
the  seed  should  be  sown  on  the  surface  and  covered  with 
the  harrow,  but  the  ground  should  not  be  harrowed  to 
the  extent  of  destroying  many  of  the  plants  that  are 
already  established.  If  the  areas  that  require  re-seed- 
ing are  devoid  or  nearly  so  of  plants  it  may  be  helpful, 
in  some  instances,  to  disk  the  ground  before  adding 
more  seed.  The  seed  thus  added  should  be  sown  in  the 
fall  as  soon  as  fall  rains  come.  If  a  top  dressing 
of  fine  farmyard  manure  is  added  before  or  after  har- 
rowing in  the  seed,  but  not  in  such  quantities  as  to  hin- 
der growth  by  smothering,  the  young  grasses  will  grow 
more  vigorously  and  will  go  through  the  winter  in  much 
better  form.  In  the  absence  of  farmyard  manure  certain 
commercial  fertilizers  may  be  used  with  profit.  Tim- 
othy meadows  Especially  may  be  thus  renewed  with 
much  advantage. 

When  the  growth  of  the  plants  is  to  be  stimulated  fer- 
tilizers must  be  applied.  For  this  purpose  no  better 
fertilizer  can  be  used  than  farmyard  manure,  could  it 
be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities,  as  it  acts  as  a 
mulch  in  addition  to  the  fertility  which  it  supplies.  It 
may  be  used  in  the  fresh  form,  especially  when  evenly 
and  not  too  thickly  distributed,  as  with  the  aid  of  the 
manure  spreader  or  in  the  reduced  form.  When  applied 
it  ought  to  be  in  the  autumn  rather  than  the  spring  on 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  43 

lands  that  are  not  hilly-  If  applied  in  the  spring  in  the 
fresh  form  it  is  not  easy  to  avoid  raking  up  more  or  less 
of  the  manure  in  the  hay  at  harvest  time.  Artificial 
fertilizers  may  of  course  be  used  in  lieu  of  farmyard 
manure.  The  kinds  that  ought  to  be  used  and  the  quan- 
tities to  use  will  be  determined  largely  by  the  needs  of 
the  soil  and  of  the  plants.  Fertilizers  rich  in  nitrogen 
are  especially  helpful  in  growing  grasses.  Potash  is 
equally  helpful  in  growing  clovers,  but  in  a  majority  of 
instances  complete  fertilizers  are  the  most  satisfactory. 
It  is  usual  to  apply  these  fertilizers  just  after  growth 
has  begun  or  after  each  cutting. 

The  renewal  of  meadows  through  self-seeding  is  more 
applicable  to  those  in  which  medium  red  clover  (Trifo* 
Hum  pratense)  is  one  of  the  factors,  than  to  those  com- 
posed entirely  of  grasses,  since  the  former  produces  seed 
in  the  autumn  after  one  crop  of  hay  has  been  harvested. 
On  certain  light  soils  and  in  certain  areas  more  or  less 
deficient  in  rainfall,  meadows  have  thus  been  main- 
tained for  many  years.  But  to  maintain  them  thus  it 
was  found  necessary  to  graze  them  but  little,  or  not  at 
all,  according  as  moisture  was  present  or  absent.  Mead- 
ows composed  entirely  of  grasses  could  not  be  renewed 
thus,  since  after  being  mown  they  do  not  usually  produce 
seed  again  the  same  season.  But  it  would  be  possible 
to  renew  them  thus  by  grazing  for  one  season,  but  not  so 
closely  as  to  preclude  a  part  of  the  plants  from  maturing 
and  shedding  seeds. 

Renovating  Pastures. — Pastures  may  be  renovated 
and  improved  by  adding  .seed  directly  or  through  the 
medium  of  self -seeding,  by  dressing  them  with  fertilizers 


44       GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

and  in  some  instances  by  re-ploughing  them.  The  va- 
rious phases  of  this  wide  question,  however,  will  only  be 
touched  upon  here.  The  precise  methods  of  securing 
such  renovation  are  more  fully  discussed  in  Chapters 
XV  and  XVI. 

In  certain  areas  when  moisture  is  more  or  less  de- 
ficient as  in  the  semi-arid  belt,  and  in  lands  immediately 
adjacent  thereto,  the  grasses  become  thinner  and  in  spots 
fail  altogether  when  they  are  grazed  closely  for  a  term 
of  years.  The  same  is  also  true  of  pastures  in  certain 
soils  of  the  south  much  deficient  in  plant  food.  As  these 
fail  the  soil  remains  uncovered,  or  is  more  or  less  pos- 
sessed by  noxious  weeds.  In  tillable  areas  the  remedy 
is  adding  more  seed  in  the  late  fall  on  the  disked  or  un- 
broken surface,  or  in  the  early  spring,  with  or  without 
disking  or  harrowing  according  to  circumstances.  When 
this  is  done  it  has  not  usually  been  found  necessary  to 
cease  pasturing  unless  for  a  short  time  after  sowing 
the  seed.  Where  tillage  cannot  be  given  as  on  the  range 
the  remedy  lies  in  so  restricting  the  grazing  that  the 
grasses  may  mature  seeds  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  and 
so  re-seed  the  land.  On  the  open  range,  that  is,  on  that 
part  of  the  range  country  known  as  public  domain,  such 
restriction  has  not  heretofore  been  found  practicable. 
But  on  those  portions  of  the  range  under  private  own- 
ership this  can  be  don6  when  the  range  is  fenced,  either 
by  grazing  so  moderately  that  more  or  less  seed  from 
the  grass  plants  will  mature  every  year  or  by  pasturing 
only  in  alternate  years. 

Top  dressing  with  fertilizers  may  be  made  to  greatly 
increase  the  productiveness  of  pastures  in  areas  sub- 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  45 

ject  to  cultivation.  On  the  range  such  fertilization 
would  not  be  practicable  because  of  the  cost.  Of  these 
fertilizers  none  are  so  effective  probably  as  farmyard 
manure,  since  as  when  applied  to  meadows  it  acts  as  a 
fertilizer  and  also  as  a  mulch,  and  the  more  quickly 
it  can  be  applied  after  it  is  made,  the  greater  is  the 
benefit  that  follows  from  applying  it.  While  it  may 
be  applied  at  nearly  any  season,  the  greatest  benefit, 
probably,  will  accrue  from  applying  it  in  the  hte  au- 
tumn or  early  winter  because  of  the  protection  which  it 
affords  and  because  of  the  stimulus  given  to  the  growth 
of  grasses  covered  by  it  as  soon  as  growth  begins  in  the 
spring.  So  great  is  the  stimulus  given  to  such  dressings 
by  the  growth  of  grasses  that  they  crowd  out  many  kinds 
of  weed  life  that  may  be  present.  The  deeply  rooted 
objections  in  the  popular  mind  to  such  applications, 
because  of  the  weed  seeds  which  they  bring  to  the  pas- 
tures, would  seem  to  be  cherished  to  an  extent  far 
beyond  the  danger  incurred.  Such  dressings  are  pe- 
culiarly adapted  to  pastures  which  form  a  part  of  the 
regular  rotation,  since  the  stimulus  thus  given  to  the 
growth  of  the  grass  plants  adds  to  the  humus  of  the 
soil  when  the  pastures  are  overturned  with  the  plough. 

Artificial  fertilizers  are  more  commonly  used  in  top 
dressing  pastures  in  the  complete  form,  but  frequently 
the  fertilizer  is  applied  only  in  the  form  of  nitrogen. 
Sometimes  phosphates  only  are  used  and  sometimes 
wood  ashes.  The  needs  of  the  soil  should  chiefly  de- 
termine the  kinds  of  fertilizer  to  be  used  and  the  quan- 
tity of  the  same. 

Only  with  certain  kinds  of  grasses  can  pastures  be 


46  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

renovated  by  breaking  them  up  occasionally  with  the 
plough  and  then  in  due  time  following  with  the  harrow. 
Included  in  the  number  are  quack  grass  (Agropyrum  re- 
pens),  Russian  brome  (Bromus  inermis),  Johnson  grass 
(Sorghum  halapense)  and  Bermuda  grass  (Cynodon 
dactylon).  It  will  be  observed  that  these  all  have  the 
power  to  multiply  by  pushing  root-stalks  through  the 
soil,  but  all  grasses  which  have  such  power  may  not  be 
renewed  thus.  Because  of  this  quality  these  grasses 
are  much  liable  to  become  sod  bound;  that  is  to  say,  so 
thick  that  free  growth  is  hindered.  By  breaking  them 
up  occasionally,  as  referred  to  above,  they  start  off  with 
renewed  vigor.  The  frequency  with  which  they  should 
be  thus  ploughed,  the  season  for  doing  the  work  and  the 
method  of  doing  it  will  be  influenced  by  such  conditions 
as  climate  and  soil.  Since  experience  in  renovating 
pastures  thus  is  limited ;  the  precise  methods  to  be  fol- 
lowed are  as  yet  but  imperfectly  understood. 

Grasses  as  Soil  Improvers. — Grasses,  unlike  clovers 
and  other  legumes  do  not  bring  fertility  to  land. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  remove  it  in  the  hay,  which 
they  furnish  as  in  the  case  of  non-leguminous  cereals, 
unless  fed  upon  the  farm  which  produced  them  and 
the  manure  thus  made  is  returned  to  the  land.  Even 
when  pastured  there  is  a  loss  of  fertility  unless  the 
animals  grazed  upon  the  pasture  remain  upon  them  by 
night  as  well  as  by  day.  But  since  inert  fertility  is 
being  gradually  liberated  in  all  soils,  and  since  grasses 
not  only  gather  more  or  less  of  this  in  the  processes 
of  growth,  but  actually  hasten  such  liberation  while 
they  are  growing,  the  soil  upon  which  they  grow  grad- 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  47 

ually  becomes  richer  in  available  fertility,  except  in 
so  far  as  the  product  of  such  growth  is  removed  from 
the  land.  This  explains  why  the  producing  power  of 
grass-producing  lands  grazed  by  sheep  is  increased.  It 
also  explains  at  least  in  part  why  poor  soils  become  more 
productive  when  they  have  become  covered  with  a 
growth  of  grass. 

Grasses,  however,  improve  the  mechanical  condition 
of  the  soil.  They  put  humus  into  it  not  only  in  the 
decay  of  their  rootlets,  but  also  in  the  decay  of  the  sod 
which  they  have  formed  when  it  is  buried  with  the 
plough.  The  vegetable  matter  thus  furnished  yields  up 
plant  food  in  a  readily  available  form,  binds  light  soils 
so  that  they  lift  less  with  the  winds,  and  renders  stiff 
soils  more  friable  and  consequently  easier  of  access  to 
the  roots  of  plants.  And  they  greatly  increase  the  power 
of  all  soils  to  retain  moisture  in  the  cultivable  area  for 
the  benefit  of  succeeding  crops. 

The  extent  of  the  benefit  thus  conferred  will  increase 
with  the  increase  of  the  supply  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter thus  furnished  and  with  the  slowness  of  the  decay  in 
the  same.  When  grasses  have  been  grown  upon  a 
piece  of  land.for  a  time  the  maximum  production  of  hu- 
mus is  practically  reached.  If,  therefore,  when  this 
limit  has  been  reached,  the  pasture  is  broken  up,  and  the 
same  land  is  again  laid  down  to  pasture  it  is  very  evi- 
dent that  much  more  humus  will  be  put  into  the  soil  thus 
rotating  grasses  than  by  growing  them  for  long  periods. 
In  tillable  areas,  therefore,  it  is  greatly  important  that 
grasses  shall  be  rotated  with  other  crops.  In  climates 
lacking  in  humidity  and  warmth  and  also  in  moisture, 


48  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

the  decay  of  vegetable  matter  is  relatively  slow,  hence, 
the  benefit  from  the  decay  of  such  matter  is  much  more 
lasting  in  these  climates  than  in  those  opposite  in 
character.  Consequently  it  is  greatly  important  that 
grass  crops  shall  form  a  factor  in  rotation,  even  though 
they  should  not  bring  fertility  directly  to  the  soil. 


CHAETEK  III. 

TIMOTHY. 

Timothy  (Plileum  pratense),  has  also  been  known 
by  the  name  Herd's  grass  and  in  some  instances  by  that 
of  Meadow  Cat's  Tail.  It  is  said  to  have  been  found 
growing  wild  in  a  swamp  in  Piscataqua,  N.  H.,  prior  to 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  by  one  Timothy 
Herd ;  hence  the  origin  of  the  name  Timothy  and  possi- 
bly also  Herd's  grass,  although  some  authorities  lean  to 
the  view  that  the  latter  name  was  given  because  of  its  use 
in  providing  grazing  for  the  herd.  It  was  known  chiefly 
by  the  name  Herd's  grass  for  several  decades  in  New 
England ;  others  claim  that  it  was  named  Timothy  from 
Timothy  Hanson  of  Maryland,  who,  it  is  said,  and  with 
much  probability,  introduced  it  from  England  about 
the  year  1720.  Other  authorities  state  that  in  that 
year  Timothy  Hanson  took  the  seed  from  New  York  to 
the  Carolinas  and  thence  to  England,  but  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  it  is  also  indigenous  to  England.  Yet 
again  it  has  been  claimed  that  the  seed  was  taken  from 
Virginia  to  England  by  one  Peter  Wynch  in  1760  or 
1761.  It  is  quite  possible,  therefore,  and  highly  prob- 
able, that  the  seed  was  derived  from  the  two  sources; 
that  is,  from  England  and  America. 

The  plants  tiller  considerably,  and  when  not  crowded 
will  each  produce  several  stems.  The  stems  grow  up- 
Grasses — 4. 


SO  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

rightly  and  usually  attain  the  height  of  about  two  feet, 
but  in  some  instances  they  grow  to  a  height  of  four  to 
five  feet.  They  are  surmounted  by  a  handsome  circular 
spike  or  head,  which  is  also  elongated,  and  is  usually 
about  three  to  four  inches  long,  but  sometimes  they  are 
produced  as  long  as  12  inches.  When  in  full  bloom  a 
field  of  timothy  is  an  attractive  sight,  especially  in  the 
early  morning  while  the  dew  lingers.  The  whole  field, 
at  such  times,  presents  the  appearance  of  a  sea  of  fila- 
ments standing  out  from  the  heads  and  sustaining  deli- 
cate and,  in  a  sense,  almost  colorless  flowers.  The  leaf 
growth  cannot  be  said  to  be  large  in  proportion  to  the 
stems,  but  it  is  fine  and  makes  good  grazing  in  the  early 
season.  When  the  plants  grow  closely,  the  growth  of 
stem  is  fine,  which  of  course  increases  the  palatability  of 
the  hay.  The  root  growth  is  fibrous  and  bulbous.  The 
fibrous  character  is  greater  relatively  in  good  and  moist 
soils  and  the  bulbous  in  poor  soils.  In  any  event  the 
bulbs  are  small  and  the  plants  feed  chiefly  not  very  far 
from  the  surface. 

Timothy  is  perennial  and  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions  will  grow  at  least  a  score  of  good  crops  in  suc- 
cession, but  under  conditions  that  are  not  really  favora- 
ble, it  is  short  lived.  Ordinarily  it  will  grow  several 
good  crops  in  succession  before  it  is  necessary  to  break 
up  the  sod.  It  grows  rather  slowly  compared  with  some 
of  the  other  food  grasses,  and  ordinarily  it  makes  but 
little  growth  the  same  season  subsequently  to  its  being 
mown  for  hay. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  timothy,  but  these  are 
known  only  to  botanists.  At  least  the  seed  has  not  come 


Fig.   2. 
TIMOTHY    fPhleum   pratsnsc). 

Oregon  Experiment  Station, 


TIMOTHY.  53 

into  the  market  under  names  that  would  indicate  specific 
varieties.  And  yet  it  is  claimed  by  botanists  that  some 
of  the  varieties  are  so  distinct  and  so  specifically  su- 
perior to  the  variety  commonly  soAvn  as  to  deserve  suffi- 
cient attention  to  grow  them  with  a  view  of  placing  them 
on  the  market  on  the  ground  of  superior  merit. 

Timothy  is  grown  rather  for  hay  than  for  pasture, 
and  yet  in  certain  areas  of  the  prairie  it  is  much  relied 
upon  for  pasture  at  the  present  time.  Close  grazing  may 
weaken  the  plants  under  certain  conditions,  but  ordina- 
rily it  does  not  readily  succumb  because  of  such  treat- 
ment. Of  all  the  grasses  now  grown  for  hay  on  the 
^"orth  American  continent,  timothy  is  unquestionably 
the  most  generally  useful  and  it  is  by  far  the  most 
extensive!;'  grown.  This  arises  in  part  from  the  wide 
range  in  its  adaptation,  but  more  from  its  many  good 
qualities.  These  include  the  ease  with  which  it  may 
be  grown,  cured  and  transported,  the  high  palatability 
and  nutrition  which  it  possesses,  and  the  attractive  ap- 
pearance and  readily  marketable  character  of  the  hay. 
The  hay,  though  fed  to  horses,  cattle  and  sheep,  has  been 
found  specially  adapted  to  the  needs  of  horses,  and  most 
of  all  adapted  to  the  needs  of  horses  when  at  work. 
This  arises  in  pare  from  the  suitability  of  the  food  con- 
stituents which  it  contains,  and  in  part  from  its  meet- 
ness  to  the  digestion  of  horses  at  work.  It  may  be 
more  suitably  fed  to  cattle  and  sheep  when  grown  along 
with  some  variety  of  clover,  since,  when  thus  fed,  the 
fodder  is  in  better  balance.  When  fed  to  sheep  it 
should  be  of  fine  growth  and  cut  early. 

Distribution. — As  has  already  been  intimated,  tim- 


54  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

othy  is  thought  to  be  indigenous  to  both  Europe  and 
America.  It  is  now  also  grown  over  considerable  areas 
in  Western  Asia  and  Northern  Africa,  and  without  ques- 
tion a  wide  area  of  distribution  awaits  it  south  of  the 
equator. 

Timothy  calls  for  a  climate,  temperate  rather  than 
torrid  or  frigid,  and  moist  rather  than  dry.  But  few 
climates,  if  any,  ars  too  humid  for  the  successful  growth 
of  timothy,  the  other  conditions  being  right.  But  the 
climate  is  too  dry  even  in  some  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the 
mountain  valleys  eastward  from  the  range  of  moun- 
tains nearest  to  the  Pacific  and  of  the  range  country  for 
several  hundred  miles  east  from  the  Rockies.  But  in 
these  areas  good  crops  can  be  grown  under  irrigation 
and  also  without  irrigation  on  many  of  the  bench  lands 
which  appertain  to  the  mountains.  That  it  is  able  to  en- 
dure much  cold  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  winters 
of  Manitoba  and  Assiniboia  do  not  destroy  it.  It  can- 
not so  well  endure  hot  summer  temperatures,  and  this,  in 
part,  accounts  for  the  comparatively  little  success  that 
attends  its  growth  in  several  of  the  southern  states. 

In  the  United  States,  timothy  may  be  grown  under 
certain  conditions  in  some  portion  or  portions  of  every 
state  in  the  Union.  If,  however,  a  line  were  run  across 
the  continent  from  Washington  to  San  Erancisco,  north 
of  that  line  would  lie  those  states  in  which  timothy  may 
be  said  to  be  a  staple  crop.  In  these  states  the  highest 
adaptability  to  its  growth  is  found  in  those  of  them 
adjacent  to  the  Canadian  boundary.  Nowhere  on  the 
continent  probably  does  timothy  grow  so  well  as  on  the 


TIMOTHY.  55 

tide  lands  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  northward 
from  the  fortieth  parallel.  It  also  grows  with  great  lux- 
uriance in  the  river  bottoms  of  Washington  and  British 
Columbia  in  Canada  and  adjacent  to  the  sea.  In  the 
southern  states,  much  of  the  soil  is  too  low  in  humus 
for  the  successful  growth  of  timothy  until  the  lack  men- 
tioned is  supplied,  notwithstanding  the  humid  character 
of  the  climate.  But  in  certain  areas,  especially  on  the 
plateaus  of  the  mountains,  good  crops  of  timothy  are 
grown.  The  states  which  are  lowest  in  adaptation  for 
the  growth  of  timothy  are  those  which  lie  to  the  south- 
west. 

Timothy  grows  more  or  less  vigorously  on  suitable 
soils  in  all  the  provinces  of  Canada,  and  with  much 
vigor  in  Ontario  and  Quebec.  The  tide  lands  of  the  mar- 
itime provinces  are  capable  of  producing  good  crops  of 
timothy  indefinitely.  It  does  not  grow  well  on  the 
western  prairies  as  in  other  areas  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada.  Especially  is  this  true  where  the  rainfall  is 
light,  as  for  instance  toward  the  Rocky  Mountains  when 
approached  from  the  east. 

Soils. — Timothy  will  grow,  but,  of  course,  not  equally 
well,  on-  a  wide  range  of  soils.  There  is  probably  no 
soil  in  the  cultivable  area  of  America  in  which  it  will 
absolutely  fail  to  grow  to  some  extent,  when  the  cli- 
matic conditions  are  suitable.  'Nevertheless,  to  grow  it 
at  its  best,  the  soil  should  be  rich  and  moist,  and  at 
least  fairly  well  supplied  with  humus.  Consequently, 
timothy  usually  grows  luxuriantly  on  reclaimed  swamp 
lands  and  on  the  alluvial  soils  of  river  bottoms.  To  these 
mav  be  added  certain  of  the  volcanic  ash  soils  of  the 


56  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

west.     It  generally  grows  in  good  form  on  tlie  humus 
soils  of  the  prairie,  on  upland  loams  and  even  on  stiff 
clays.     But  to  grow  the  crop  at  its  best  in  reclaimed 
swamps  it  is  necessary  that  the  soil  shall  be  muck  rather 
than  peat.     In  the  latter,  if  unreduced,  it  will  not  make 
much  growth,  even  though  sufficient  moisture  should  be 
present.     In  river  bottoms  it  is  necessary  that  the  soils, 
if  sandy,   shall  contain  at  least  a  fair  proportion   of 
loam.     In  the  volcanic  ash  soils  of  the  western  moun- 
tain states,  it  would  seem  to  be  specially  necessary  that 
ample  moisture  shall  be  present.    In  the  humus  soils  of 
the  prairie  sufficient  clay  is  requisite  to  keep  them  from 
lifting  with  the  wind.     Upland  loams  require  at  least  a 
fair  amount  of  fertility,  and  stiff  clays  enough  of  humus 
to  prevent  them  from  impacting  and  baking  in  a  degree 
seriously  harmful  to  growth.     The  valley  lands  of  the 
east  and  the  west,  all  across  the  northern  half  of  the 
continent,  have  specially  high  adaptation  for  timothy, 
but  nowhere  probably  higher  than  on  river  bottoms  and 
reclaimed  lands  beside  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic.    On 
the  foothills  of  the  Alleghanies  and  of  the  Eockies  it 
grows  well,  a  fact  in  a  considerable  degree  accounted  for 
by  the  seepage  from  the  mountains,  which  keeps  the 
ground  moist.     The  return  from  certain  of  the  humus 
soils  of  the  prairie  is  frequently  disappointing,  but  this 
arises  probably  more  from  a  lack  of  moisture  than  a  lack 
of  plant  food  in  the  soil.   It  would  probably  be  correct  to 
say  that  the  black  soils  of  the  prairie,  so  light  that  the 
winds  will  sometimes  carry  them,  are  not  really  good 
timothy  soils. 

Dry,  sandy  soils  and  soils  low  in  fertility  are  ill 


TIMOTHY.  57 

adapted  to  the  growth  of  timothy.  This  is  true  of  the 
last  named  class  of  soils,  regardless  of  their  composition 
or  mechanical  condition.  Good  crops  of  timothy  cannot 
be  grown  on  a  hungry  soil,  any  more  than  good  crops 
of  wheat.  Sandy  soils  low  in  humus  are  usually  of  this 
character,  and  are,  moreover,  leechy ;  hence,  on  these  the 
crop  is  usually  characterized  by  lack  of  vigor  in  its 
growth.  The  naturally  hungry  character  of  many  of  the 
upland  soils  of  the  south  is  largely  responsible  for  the 
lack  of  adaptation  in  these  to  the  growth  of  timothy. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Timothy  should  be  sown  on 
clean  soil.  It  should,  therefore,  follow  such  crops  as 
have  been  given  clean  cultivation  during  the  period  of 
growth.  These  will  include  corn,  sorghum,  the  non- 
saccharine  sorghums,  all  kinds  of  field  roots,  potatoes, 
in  some  instances  rape ;  also  cow  peas  and  soy  beans.  It 
may  also  be  sown  with  much  advantage  on  lands  that 
have  been  properly  summer  fallowed.  It  is,  of  course, 
frequently  sown  on  land  that  is  not  clean,  and  it  may 
grow  with  some  vigor  under  such  conditions,  but  the  hay 
produced  will  not  be  of  nrime  quality  because  of  the 
weeds  that  are  mixed  with  it. 

Timothy  may  be  followed  by  almost  any  kind  of  a 
crop,  since,  when  sown  alone  it  does  not  form  a  stiff  sod ; 
hence,  the  crops  which  immediately  follow  timothy  are 
usually  able  to  gather  sufficient  food  from  the  soil.  But 
the  aim  should  be  to  follow  timothy  with  some  small 
cereal  grain  crop  which  has  much  power  to  gather  food 
in  the  soil,  since,  under  some  conditions,  overturned 
sod  does  not  decay  quickly  enough  to  enable  certain 
crops  to  gather  food  therefrom  Avith  sufficient  quickness 


58  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

to  produce  results  such  as  may  be  desired.  The  oat  crop 
is  a  favorite  one  to  sow  immediately  after  timothy.  The 
same  is  true  of  flax,  in  areas  where  that  crop  is  success- 
fully grown.  When  the  sod  can  be  ploughed  immedi- 
ately or  soon  after  the  timothy  has  been  harvested  for 
hay,  or  even  earlier  when  it  is  being  used  as  pasture, 
winter  wheat  or  some  other  winter  cereal  may  be  sown 
upon  it  with  much  advantage.  Peas  or  vetches  will  grow 
luxuriantly  after  this  crop,  and  they  aid  in  reducing  the 
sod  where  this  may  be  necessary  to  bring  the  land  in 
proper  condition  for  sustaining  successfully  some  cereal 
that  has  less  power  to  gather  its  food.  Overturned  tim- 
othy sod  is  also  advantageous  to  the  growth  of  such 
crops  as  corn,  potatoes,  the  sorghums  and  rape.  All  of 
these  feed  ravenously  on  the  decaying  vegetable  matter 
in  the  sod.  But,  since  these  are  all  grown  as  cleaning 
crops,  the  growing  of  such  cereals  as  oats,  barley  and 
Canada  field  peas,  the  peas  to  be  followed  by  wheat,  are 
more  commonly  made  to  follow  crops  of  timothy. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  ordinary  practice,  when  tim- 
othy is  sown  with  a  nurse  crop,  that  degree  of  pulveriza- 
tion which  prepares  the  soil  sufficiently  for  sowing  the 
nurse  crop  is  considered  sufficient  for  the  timothy  also. 
But  this  does  not  always  hold  true.  Clay  soils  are  fre- 
quently covered  with  small  clods  on  the  surface,  the 
pulverization  under  these  being  so  fine  that  the  small 
grains  sown  on  them  will  start  with  sufficient  vigor, 
while  the  timothy  seed,  being  planted  nearer  the  surface, 
will  not  germinate  well  unless  the  weather  should  prove 
more  than  ordinarily  moist.  In  nearly  all  instances, 
therefore,  it  will  prove  advantageous  to  work  the  ground 


TIMOTHY.  59 

sufficiently  to  secure  a  fine  condition  of  tilth  on  the  sur- 
face. The  more  nearly  the  condition  of  the  pulveriza- 
tion secured  resembles  that  of  a  garden  prepared  for 
the  seed  the  better.  To  secure  this  may  involve  the  per- 
sistent use  of  the  harrow  and  roller,  but  labor  thus  ex- 
pended will  ordinarily  be  well  repaid  in  the  better  stand 
of  timothy  that  will  follow.  But  to  this  rule  there  may 
be  some  exceptions.  For  instance,  when  timothy  is 
sown  in  the  autumn  on  stiff  clays,  and  in  areas  subject 
to  beating  autumn  or  winter  rains,  when  the  pulveriza- 
tion is  fine  beyond  a  certain  degree,  the  soil  "runs  to- 
gether ;"  that  is,  the  fine  particles  in  it  adhere  so  closely 
that  in  some  instances  it  becomes  encrusted — a  con- 
dition adverse  to  every  form  of  plant  growth.  When 
timothy  is  sown  alone,  as  it  sometimes  is  in  the  early 
autumn,  the  ground  may  in  many  instances  be  prepared 
by  simply  using  the  disk,  the  harrow  and  the  roller. 
Such  preparation  will  usually  suffice  when  the  surface 
of  the  soil  is  at  least  reasonably  free  from  weeds.  Such 
a  condition  is  frequently  met  with  on  soils  from  which  a 
heavy  crop  of  peas  or  vetches  have  been  harvested  or 
from  which  a  cultivated  crop  as  potatoes,  have  been  re- 
moved. But  if  the  soil  sustains  weed  growth  in  any 
marked  degree  then  it  ought  to  be  ploughed  if  possible  a 
considerable  time  before  the  seed  is  sown,  and  pulverized 
by  suitable  cultivation.  On  soils  that  are  liable  to  lift 
with  the  wind,  it  would  probably  be  better  to  sow  the 
seed  amid  the  grain  stubbles  in  the  early  autumn  and 
cover  with  the  harrow.  The  stubbles  will  so  far  hinder 
the  winds  from  lifting  the  soil,  and  will  also  furnish  pro- 
tection to  the  younff  plants  in  th^  winter  season. 


60  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

The  more  that  soils  are  enriched  for  timothy,  the  bet- 
ter will  be  the  growth  that  will  follow.  It  is  more  com- 
mon, however,  to  stimulate  growth  by  dressing  the  plants 
with  a  fertilizer  than  to  apply  fertilizers  to  the  soil 
previous  to  sowing  the  seed.  Farmyard  manure  is  an 
excellent  fertilizer,  but  when  applied  on  soils  intended 
for  timothy,  if  in  the  fresh  form,  the  results  are  likely 
to  prove  more  satisfactory  on  the  whole  if  it  is  used  when 
preparing  the  crop  that  precedes  timothy,  since  the  un- 
used increment  still  left  in  the  soil  is  then  easily  accessi- 
ble to  the  young  timothy  plants.  But  reduced  farmyard 
manures  may  be  applied  with  advantage  when  preparing 
the  soil  for  the  nurse  crop  with  which  the  timothy  is  to 
be  sown ;  coarse  manures  may  also  be  thus  applied,  where 
the  conditions  favor  rapid  decomposition  in  the  soil 
and  especially  when  the  period  of  soil  preparation  covers 
a  considerable  length  of  time. 

.  Sowing. — The  time  at  which  timothy  .may  and  ought 
to  be  sown  will  vary  much  with  variations  in  climatic 
conditions.  It  would  probably  be  correct  to  say  that  in 
all  places  in  which  it  can  be  grown  with  a  fair  measure  of 
success,  the  two  best  seasons  for  sowing  it  are  the  early 
spring  and  the  early  autumn.  When  sown  in  the  early 
spring  a  stand  is  more  assured  than  when  sown  later,  and 
the  same  is  true  of  early  fall  sowing.  In  all  the  states 
northward  and  in  all  the  provinces  of  Canada,  in  which 
winter  rye  and  winter  wheat  can  be  sown  with  success, 
timothy  may  sometimes  be  sown  while  the  snow  still  lin- 
gers. When  thus  sown,  as  the  snow  melts,  it  comes  in 
contact  with  the  soil  while  the  latter  is  yet  "moist,  and 
nmcn  of  the  seed  is  covered  in  the  little  openings  on  the 


TIMOTHY.  61 

surface  by  soil  particles  shifting  position.  If  sown 
while  the  "old  snow"  is  jet  several  inches  deep,  the  dan- 
ger exists  that  much  of  the  seed  may  be  carried  away  by 
the  waters  formed  in  the  rapid  melting  of  the  snows 
through  a  sudden  drop  in  the  temperature,  and  this  con- 
dition may  be  further  aggravated  by  heavy  rains. 

Timothy  may  also  be  sown  in  the  spring  on  ground  in 
a  honeycombed  condition,  induced  by  alternate  thawing 
and  freezing  in  the  early  spring,  while  there  is  yet  much 
moisture  in  the  soil.  When  the  seed  is  sown  on  soils  in 
the  condition  stated,  the  work  can  best  be  done  in  the 
early  morning  when  the  air  is  still  and  while  the  ground 
is  yet  frozen.  By  the  time  the  ground  has  settled  down 
to  a  normal  condition  much  of  the  seed  is  covered,  and 
a  stand  is  reasonably  assured.  On  some  soils,  however, 
timothy  seed  cannot  be  sown  thus  since  they  do  not 
honeycomb.  Where  they  do,  a  stand  is  more  certain 
than  it  would  be  if  the  sowing  were  deferred  until  the 
ground  was  dry  enough  to  render  it  necessary  to  cover 
the  seed  with  the  harrow. 

On  soils  which  carry  crops  of  winter  wheat  or  winter 
rye,  also  winter  barley  or  winter  oats,  and  which  do  not 
honeycomb,  the  sowing  of  the  seed  in  spring  should  be 
deferred  until  it  can  be  covered  with  the  harrow.  If 
sown  on  such  soils  without  any-covering  and  dry  weather 
should  follow,  the  seed  or,  at  least,  much  of  it,  would  not 
grow,  and  a  stand  would  not  be  secured.  But  in  a  wet 
season  it  would  likely  be  different. 

When  the  seed  is  sown  with  any  kind  of  spring  crop, 
it  should  be  put  in  when  practicable  at  the  same  time  as 
the  nurse  crop  or  as  soon  as  possible  thereafter.  The 


62  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

earlier  that  such  crops  can  be  sown  the  more  assured 
the  stand  of  the  clover  in  a  normal  season,  since  more 
time  is  then  given  to  the  plants  to  become  well  rooted 
before  the  arrival  of  dry  and  hot  weather,  when  the 
summer  is  moist,  timothy  would  succeed  when  sown 
late,  but  since  such  seasons  cannot  be  foretold,  late 
sowing  is  always  attended  with  more  or  less  hazard  to 
the  timothy. 

When  timothy  is  sown  alone,  it  may  be  best  sown  in 
the  late  summer  or  in  the  early  autumn.  When  sown 
thus  in  the  spring  a  stand  may  also  be  secured,  but  seed 
sown  thus  in  the  spring  seldom  produces  a  full  crop  of 
hay  the  same  season,  while  the  reverse  is  true  of  seed 
sown  in  the  fall.  When  sown  with  any  of  the  wrinter 
crops  named  above,  the  aim  should  be  to  sow  the 
timothy  seed  along  with  the  nurse  crop,  or  as  soon 
as  possible  thereafter.  Early  sowing  in  the  autumn 
enables  the  plants  to  become  so  strong  that  they  can 
well  resist  the  adverse  influences  of  winter  weather. 
Early  sowing  in  the  spring  enables  the  plants  to  become 
rooted  and  strong  before  the  coming  of  the  hot  and  usu- 
ally dry  weather  of  summer.  When  the  seed  is  sown  late 
in  the  fall  the  vitality  of  the  young  plants  may  become 
weakened  if  not  destroyed  by  cold  winds  and  low  tem- 
peratures which  prevail  in  certain  areas.  On  soils  that 
heave  with  the  frost,  the  stronger  the  plants  the  better 
can  they  resist  the  influences  which  produce  such  heav- 
ing. Timothy  when  sown  in  the  autumn  would  seem  to 
be  able  to  withstand  adverse  influences  at  least  as  well  as 
winter  wheat,  winter  oats  or  winter  barley.  Some  farm- 
ers in  the  northern  states  claim  good  results  from  sow- 
ing timothy  in  August  on  overturned  stubble  land,  and 


TIMOTHY.  63 

along  with  fall  turnips.  They  claim  that  the  turnips 
protected  the  crop  in  winter  and  fed  it  the  next  summer. 

Whether  timothy  should  he  sown  alone  or  with  a 
nurse  crop  must  he  determined  by  the  object  sought  from 
sowing  it.  Where  a  full  crop  of  timothy  is  desired  the 
first  season  after  sowing,  it  ought  to  be  sown  alone  in  the 
early  autumn  as  intimated  above.  Sowing  it  thus  in  the 
early  spring  would  almost  certainly  insure  a  stand  and 
would  also  provide  more  or  less  pasture  the  same  season, 
but  it  would  not  seem  to  be  good  practice  in  farming  to 
sow  timothy  alone  in  the  spring,  unless  where  a  full  crop 
could  be  looked  for  the  same  season. 

All  things  considered,  a  good  stand  of  timothy  is 
more  certain  when  sown  along  with  a  winter  rather 
than  a  spring  nurse  crop,  and  it  will  also  furnish  more 
pasture  after  the  crop  has  been  removed.  The  dry 
weather  of  summer  more  frequently  kills  the  timothy  if 
spring  sown  than  does  the  harsh  winter  weather  that, 
which  was  properly  sown  in  the  autumn.  Of  the  win- 
ter crops,  rye  and  barley  are  probably  the  best;  and 
after  these  wheat  and  oats  in  the  order  named  (see  page 
32).  If  these  crops  are  pastured  rather  than  harvested, 
the  return  in  pasture  the  same  season  from  the  timothy 
will  be  increased.  When  sown  in  the  spring,  the  follow- 
ing nurse  crops  are  good  in  the  order  named,  viz.,  spring 
rye  or  speltz,  barley,  spring  wheat  and  oats.  Timothy 
may  also  be  sown  with  grain  grown  for  pasture.  Such 
grain  may  be  grown  alone  or  in  combination  with  other 
grains,  and  the  timothy  also  may  be  sown  singly  or  in 
combination  with  other  grasses  and  clovers.  (See  page 
35.) 


64  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Timothy  may  be  sown  by  hand  with  the  aid  of  some 
hand  sowing  machine,  the  grain  drill,  and  sometimes  the 
broadcast  seeder.  When  sown  while  the  snow  still  lin- 
gers in  the  spring,  hand  sowing  is  a  necessity.  It  may 
also  be  resorted  to  under  all  other  conditions  except  when 
the  seed  is  to  be  mixed  with  that  of  the  nurse  crop  amid 
which  it  is  to  grow.  But  there  are  some  objections  to 
hand  sowing.  First,  it  involves  more  labor  than  sowing 
by  some  of  the  other  methods  named.  Especially  is  this 
true  when  the  comparison  lies  between  hand  sowing  and 
sowing  with  a  grain  drill ;  second,  the  seed  can  only  be 
sown  when  the  air  is  reasonably  calm  and  still,  other- 
wise it  will  fall  irregularly.  The  fact  remains,  never- 
theless, that  one  skilled  in  hand  sowing  can  sow  timothy 
when. quite  a  breeze  is  blowing  by  shaping  his  course 
accordingly,  and  by  adjusting  the  swing  of  the  hand  or 
hands  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  occasion ;  and  third, 
the  number  of  persons  relatively  who  can  sow  such  seed 
with  regularity  and  evenness  is  not  large  and  it  is  prob- 
ably decreasing.  In  former,  years  when  seeds  were  all 
sown  by  hand,  a  considerable  number  of  farmers  could 
sow  admirably  with  both  hands,  but  now,  and  especially 
in  the  west,  such  seed  sowers  are  not  numerous. 

If  sown  with  hand  machines,  the  kind  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  sower  and  the  conditions  under  which  the 
seed  is  sown.  But  the  "wheel  barrow  seed  sower"  is 
most  in  favor  for  such  work.  Unless  when  the  wind  is 
blowing  quite  strong  it  will  sow  the  seed  evenly,  and  at 
least  as  quickly  as  it  can  be  scattered  by  a  person  using 
both  hands.  Like  hand  sowing  it  does  not  bury  the  seed. 

Timothy  seed  is  frequently  sown  with  the  grain  drill. 


TIMOTHY.  65 

In  some  instances  the  seed  is  mixed  with  the  grain  pre- 
viously, in  others  at  the  time  of  sowing.  Some  farmers 
wiio  till  soft  and  open  prairie  soils  claim  that  this 
method  has  proved  satisfactory  with  them.  But,  on 
heavy  soils  it  would  not  prove  satisfactory,  since  it 
would  bury  it  far  too  deeply.  There  is  the  further  ob- 
jection that  it  does  not  feed  out  evenly  along  with  the 
grain.  Because  of  the  smallness  of  the  seeds,  it  feeds  out 
more  quickly  than  the  grain,  but  this  can  be  partially 
obviated  by  occasionally  stirring  the  seeds  more  or  less 
by  hand  in  the  grain  box  while  it  is  being  sown.  But 
grain  drills  are  now  being  introduced  which  convey  the 
seed  into  the  drill  tubes  with  sufficient  regularity.  There 
is  also  the  further  objection  that  the  seed  being  placed  in 
the  line  of  the  row  with  the  grain,  the  plants  as  they 
grow  are  crowded  and  shaded  overmuch  by  the  grain. 
Grain  drills  with  a  grass  seed  attachment  (see  page  21), 
deposit  the  grain  very  evenly.  Under  some  conditions  it 
is  better  to  have  the  seed  fall  before  the  drill  tubes,  but 
under  other  conditions  it  should  fall  behind  them. 
When  it  falls  before  the  grain  tubes,  further  covering  is 
frequently  unnecessary,  but  not  in  all  instances.  When 
it  falls  behind  these,  covering  with  the  harrow  is  usually 
advantageous  but  not  in  all  instances.  Some  growers 
cover  with  the  weeder. 

Timothy  seed  may  also  be  sown  with  the  broadest 
grain  seeder.  It  may  be  thus  sown  by  mixing  the  seed 
with  the  grain.  But  some  broadcast  seeders  have  attach- 
ments for  sowing  grass  seeds,  and,  when  they  have,  the 
seed  should  be  scattered  with  these.  Whether  it  should 
fall  before  the  seeder  or  after  it,  will  depend  upon  such 
Grasses — 6. 


66  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

conditions  as  relate  to  soil  and  moisture.  Except  on 
certain  prairie  soils,  scattering  the  seed  before  the  seed- 
er would  usually  bury  it  too  deeply. 

The  depth  to  which  timothy  seed  should  be  buried 
will  depend  on  such  conditions  as  relate  to  climate,  sea- 
son and  soil.  The  more  moist  the  climate,  the  less  the  ne- 
cessity for  putting  the  seed  down  deeply  into  the  soil 
and  vice  versa.  The  dryer  the  slimmer  climate,  the 
greater  the  necessity  for  putting  the  seeds  down  if  sown 
in  the  spring,  and  the  colder  the  climate,  the  greater  the 
necessity  for  putting  them  down  in  the  autumn.  The 
later  in  the  spring  that  the  seed  is  sown,  the  deeper 
should  it  be  buried,  and  the  same  is  true  of  autumn 
seeding  on  soils  that  lift.  The  heavier  and  firmer  the 
soil  as  a  rule,  the  less  deeply  does  the  soil  require  to  be 
covered,  and  vice  versa.  Under  some  conditions  the 
seed  does  not  need  to  be  covered  in  any  other  way  save 
as  nature  covers  it.  Under  other  conditions  it  may  be 
advantageous  to  cover  it  as  deeply  as  two  inches  if  not 
indeed,  even  more  deeply.  In  a  majority  of  instances 
an  ideal  depth  would  be  about  half  an  inch. 

When  sown  on  the  snow  or  on  land  in  the  honey- 
combed condition,  of  course  the  seed  cannot  be  covered 
by  any  artificial  process.  When  sown  with  a  grain  drill 
or  broadcast  seeder  and  along  with  the  grain,  it  must 
also  be  buried  as  deeply  as  the  grain.  When  sown  on 
winter  crops  in  the  spring  after  the  soil  has  become 
firm,  the  seed  ought  to  be  covered  with  the  harrow  or 
weeder.  The  stiffer  the  soil,  the  heavier  the  harrow  that 
ought  to  be  used,  and  the  more  erect  should  the  teeth 
be  when  in  use,  and  vice  versa.  Stirring  the  surface 


TIMOTHY.  67 

soil  thus  to  cover  the  timothy  seed,  will  also  be  helpful 
to  the  grain  crop.  When  the  seed  falls  before  the  grain 
tubes  of  the  drill,  it  frequently  requires  no  other  cover- 
ing, but  sometimes  a  stroke  of  the  harrow  will  be  found 
helpful.  When  the  seed  falls  behind  the  drill  tubes,  in 
moist  climates  no  covering  is  necessary  other  than  that 
given  by  the  rains,  but,  on  such  soils,  if  sowing  the  tim- 
othy is  deferred  until  after  rain  falls,  in  nearly  all  in- 
stances it  would  be  advantageous  to  harrow.  On  prairie 
soils  and  especially  where  the  conditions  are  dry,  when 
the  seed  is  sown  thus,  in  nearly  all  instances  the  har- 
row ought  to  be  used. 

The  roller  will  sometimes  furnish  a  sufficient  cover- 
ing. This  frequently  proves  true  of  soils  in  moist  cli- 
mates, especially  those  of  a  heavy  texture.  But  in 
soils  that  will  lift  with  the  wind,  the  harrow  should  im- 
mediately follow  the  roller,  and  in  the  autumn  when 
covering  the  seed,  the  roller  should  seldom  or  never  be 
used  without  the  harrow  following  it. 

Timothy  may  be  sown  in  various  combinations.  The 
most  suitable  of  these  is  clover  in  one  of  its  varieties. 
It  has  peculiar  adaptation  for  such  a  combination,  for 
the  reason,  first,  that  it  has  power  to  fight  the  battle 
for  existence  and  to  hold  its  own  place  when  sown  along 
with  clover.  Second,  a  greater  return  of  the  combined 
crop  is  usually  obtained  than  would  be  of  either  plant 
grown  singly.  Third,  the  quality  of  the  hay  is  im- 
proved for  general  feeding  because  of  its  increased  fine- 
ness and  wider  adaptation  to  the  needs  of  the  various 
classes  of  live  stock.  Fourth,  the  timothy  luxuriates 
on  the  food  furnished  by  the  dead  clover  roots.  And 


68  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

fifth,  as  timothy  is  usually  longer  lived  than  clover, 
it  is  then  possible  to  secure  a  longer  succession  of  hay 
or  pasture  crops  than  if  timothy  were  sown  alone. 

Timothy  has  been  more  commonly  grown  in  combi 
nation  with  red  clover  than  with  any  other  variety,  and 
chiefly  for  the  reason,  probably,  that  red  clover  is  grown 
to  a  far  greater  extent  than  the  other  varieties.  If 
grown  along  with  red  clover,  the  conditions  being  equal- 
ly favorable  to  the  growth  of  both,  the  first  year  of  cut- 
ting, the  hay  will  be  chiefly  clover,  the  latter  being  the 
more  vigorous  growing  plant  early  in  the  season.  The 
second  year  timothy  will  predominate  as  the  clover  is 
generally  short  lived,  and  the  third  year  the  crop  will 
be  all  or  nearly  all  timothy.  But  the  combination  of 
timothy  and  mammoth  clover  or  of  timothy  and  alsike 
clover,  is  superior  to  that  of  timothy  and  medium  red 
clover,  and  principally  for  the  reason  that  it  matures 
about  the  same  time  as  these,  whereas  it  matures  about 
three  weeks  later  than  medium  clover.  It  has  higher 
adaptation  for  being  grown  with  alsike  clover  than  with 
the  mammoth,  since  both  alsike  clover  and  timothy 
grow  at  their  best  in  soils  rich  in  humus  and  moist  it. 
character.  For  certain  uses,  redtop  added  improves  the 
crop,  especially  in  its  yield.  Timothy  also  matures 
about  the  same  time  as  meadow  fescue,  hence  the  two 
may  be  sown  in  conjunction  for  hay  where  the  condi- 
tions are  favorable,  but  this  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
done  to  any  great  extent  in  America.  On  some  irri- 
gated lands  in  the  west,  timothy  and  alfalfa  have  br-^u 
grown  together  with  some  success. 

For  permanent  pastures  timothy  has  an  abiding  placo 


TIMOTHY.  69 

because  of  its  power  to  endure.  The  prominence  given 
to  it  in  these  should  depend  upon  its  relative  adaptation 
as  compared  with  other  grasses.  It  can  usually  be 
given  a  place  in  these  north  of  the  fortieth  parallel  of 
north  latitude  and  in  instances  not  a  few  considerably 
south  of  that  line.  In  the  upper  Mississippi  Basin  and 
indeed  in  all  the  northern  states  and  provinces  of  Cana- 
da, it  should  be  an  important  factor  in  permanent  pas- 
tures mixed  in  character. 

The  amounts  of  timothy  seed  to  sow  will  of  course  be 
much  influenced  by  varying  conditions.  When  sown 
alone  for  hay  or  pasture  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  sow 
more  than  12  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  and  on  some  soils 
8  pounds  will  be  found  ample.  In  some  instances  as 
in  the  semi-arid  belt  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  bet- 
ter results  may  frequently  be  looked  for  from  sowing 
6  pounds  because  of  the  scarcity  of  moisture.  Eight  to 
ten  pounds  may  be  set  down  as  average  amounts. 

When  sown  with  medium  red,  mammoth  or  alsike 
clover  6  pounds  may  be  considered  an  average  amount 
to  sow,  but  this  may  be  increased  to,  say  8  pounds,  or 
reduced  to  4  pounds  according  to  the  object  sought. 
Similarly  the  amount  of  clover  seed  in  the  combination 
for  a  hay  crop  will  vary,  but  the  amounts  respectively 
of  common  red  and  mammoth  may  be  set  down  ^s  6  to 
8  pounds  per  acre  and  of  alsike  at  4  to  5  pounds. 
When  sown  with  red  top  only  6  pounds  of  timothy  and 
probably  the  same  amount  of  red  top  will  suffice.  And 
when  sown  with  alsike  clover  and  red  top  in  combina- 
tion 4  pounds  of  timothy  would  seem  to  be  enough, 
adding  3  or  4  pounds  of  red  top  and  3  pounds  of  alsike 


70  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

clover.  A  mixture  of  timothy  and  alsike  clover  only 
is  usually  preferred  as  hay  for  the  market  to  a  mixture 
consisting  of  timothy,  alsike  clover  and  red  top. 

When  the  crop  is  sown  to  produce  seed,  a  less  quan- 
tity will  suffice  than  when  it  is  sown  for  hay.  When 
the  orop  grows  quite  thickly,  the  size  of  the  heads  is 
reduced;  when  it  is  sown  to  produce  a  fine  quality  of 
hay,  of  course  thick  seeding  must  be  resorted  to.  Tim- 
othy is  seldom  sown  alone  for  permanent  pasture,  but 
if  it  should  be  thus  sown  heavy  seeding  ought  to  be 
given.  When  used  as  a  factor  in  permanent  pastures 
from  3  to  4  pounds  per  acre  ought  to  suffice. 

Pasturing. — In  some  sections  of  the  prairie,  as  where 
for  instance  the  conditions  have  proved  too  cold,  and 
it  may  be  too  dry  also  for  clover,  and  where  blue  grass 
or  Russian  brome  has  not  yet  been  introduced,  timothy 
is  about  the  only  cultivated  grass  used  in  providing  pas- 
ture, and  yet  it  is  not  pre-eminently  a  pasture  plant. 
This  has  doubtless  arisen  from  necessity  rather  than 
from  choice  in  areas  not  very  long  settled  and  in  which 
the  question  of  pastures  from  cultivated  grasses  has 
not  yet  been  given  much  attention.  The  bulk  of  the 
growth  for  the  season  is  made  before  the  arrival  of  mid- 
summer and  if  not  eaten  down  until  well  advanced  in 
growth,  the  plants  are  not  highly  relished  by  live  stock. 
Particularly  is  this  true  of  it  after  the  heads  have  ap- 
peared. Although  it  stands  pasturing  well  when  the 
conditions  for  growth  are  generally  favorable,  on  cer- 
tain of  the  soils  of  the  prairie  close  pasturing  will  cause 
it  to  fail  within  a  very  limited  number  of  years.  For 
this,  doubtless,  lack  of  moisture  is  in  part  responsible, 


TIMOTHY.  71 

but  on  certain  soils  of  the  south  it  will  soon  fail  under 
close  grazing  even  when  moisture  is  sufficiently  preva- 
lent. Ordinarily  the  results  will  prove  much  more  sat- 
isfactory when  timothy  forms  but  one  factor  of  the  pas- 
ture, although  in  providing  pasture  for  horses  it  has 
found  some  favor  in  certain  localities  though  sown 
alone.  For  pasture  as  also  for  hay  it  is  more  com- 
monly sown  with  medium  red  clover  than  with  any 
other  variety  of  clover  or  grass,  since,  when  thus  grown, 
while  the  clover  lives  the  grazing  can  be  continued 
through  nearly  all  the  year.  But  when  it  is  desired  tc 
obtain  pasture  speedily  through  the  aid  of  timothy,  it 
may  be  done  in  certain  areas  by  sowing  the  seed  in  the 
autumn  along  with  winter  rye.  The  rye  is  then  pas- 
tured in  the  spring,  and  when  the  rye  pasture  has  failed 
the  timothy  continues  to  provide  pasture  more  or  less 
through  the  summer. 

In  pasturing  timothy  the  grazing  should  begin  reason- 
ably early  in  the  spring,  but  very  close  pasturing  at  that 
season  will  materially  lessen  the  yield  if  a  dry  season 
should  follow.  On  the  other  hand  if  the  pasture  is 
under  stocked  it  will  be  eaten  closely  in  certain  por- 
tions and  in  other  portions  will  form  heads.  When  this 
occurs  the  field  mower  should  be  run  over  the  pasture 
before  the  seed  matures. 

Usually  close  grazing  in  the  autumn  will  materially 
lessen  production  the  following  season, v  whether  the 
plants  are  devoted  to  furnishing  pasture  or  hay.  Be- 
cause of  this  many  growers  of  timothy  hay  for  mar- 
ket do  not  graze  the  meadows  in  the  autumn.  The 
mulch  provided  by  the  aftermath  furnishes  excellent 


72  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

winter  protection  in  bleak  locations  and  is  particularly 
favorable  to  early  and  vigorous  growth  the  following- 
season.  Bat  there  are  localities  as  in  certain  of  the 
river  bottoms  west  of  the  Cascade  mountains,  in  which 
timothy  meadows  are  grazed  much  of  the  winter  and 
yet  produce  large  crops  of  hay. 

The  growth  of  timothy  pastures  will  be  greatly  stimu- 
lated by  top  dressings  of  farmyard  manure.  These  are 
best  applied  in  the  autumn,  but  may  also  be  applied 
in  the  winter  when  the  ground  is  frozen  unless  on  hilly 
land.  Since  timothy  is  non-leguminous  it  is  wholly 
dependent  on  the  soil  for  its  nitrogen.  Consequently 
fertilizers  rich  in  nitrogen  whether  applied  as  farm- 
yard manure  or  as  commercial  fertilizers  will  greatly 
stimulate  the  growth.  But  in  actual  practice,  nitrogen 
in  the  latter  form  is  usually  applied  to  timothy  meadows 
rather  than  to  pastures  of  the  same. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — The  stage  of  maturity  at  which 
timothy  ought  to  be  harvested  for  hay  will  depend  to 
some  extent  on  what  it  is  intended  for.  For  cattle 
and  sheep  it  is  frequently  cut  when  coming  into  bloom. 
Particularly  is  this  true  when  it  grows  amid  a  good 
crop  of  medium  red  clover.  In  order  to  secure  the 
highest  feeding  value  in  the  clover  it  is  necessary  to 
cut  the  timothy  while  yet  somewhat  immature  to  fur- 
nish the  best  results  in  feeding.  But  even  when  grown 
alone  for  the  uses  named,  it  should  be  cut  while  not 
yet  in  full  bloom.  It  will  then  be  less  woody  and  more 
palatable  than  if  cut  later,  although  there  may  be 
some  loss  in  weight.  If  cut  when  in  full  bloom,  the 
hay  is  somewhat  more  dusty  than  it  would  otherwise  be; 


TIMOTHY.  73 

hence,  so  far  it  is  objectionable  for  being  fed  to  horses. 
When  the  crop  is  to  be  harvested  to  provide  hay  for 
horses,  or  that  is  to  be  put  upon  the  market  the  aim 
should  be  to  cut  it  at  the  stage  spoken  of  as  the  "second 
bloom,"  which  really  means  when  it  is  about  to  go  out 
of  bloom.  This  may  be  known  by  observing  when  but 
a  small  part  of  the  tops  of  the  heads  only  continue  to 
produce  blossoms.  The  bloom  comes  out  a  little  late 
on  that  part  of  the  head  and  is  likewise  a  little  later 
in  departing.  When  cut  at  this  stage  all  the  weight 
possible  is  secured  in  the  crop,  also  all  the  nutriment 
possible,  and  it  is  still  relished  by  horses. 

In  a  great  majority  of  instances  but  one  crop  is  ob- 
tained per  year,  but  under  the  influence  of  liberal  and 
timely  applications  of  commercial  fertilizers,  nitroge- 
nous in  character,  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  get  two  cut- 
tings a  year,  but  the  second  will  consist  chiefly  of  rowen, 
that  is  of  grass  that  has  not  yet, reached  the  heading  out 
stage.  From,  two  such  cuttings  of  timothy  and  red  top 
grown  together,  from  5  to  8  tons  per  acre  have  been 
cut  from  year  to  year  for  several  years  past,  by  Mr. 
Geo.  TX.  Clark  of  Higganum,  Conn.  At  least  4 
tons  may  be  secured  from  one  cutting  of  timothy  alone 
in  a  single  season.  Two  tons  per  acre  are  considered 
a  really  good  crop.  But  the  average  crop  is  about  1J 
to  1-J  tons.  One  ton  per  acre  is  considered  a  light  crop. 

In  some  location s,  as  on  the  river  bottoms  and  re- 
claimed tide  lands  of  Western  Washington,  as  many  as 
twenty  crops  of  good  yielding  timothy  have  been  grown 
in  succesGion  without  apparent  diminution  in  the  yield. 
On  certain  prairie  soils  where  moisture  is  lacking  the 


74  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

yield  the  second  year  of  cutting  is  frequently  much  di- 
minished. Under  ordinary  farm  conditions  where  tim- 
othy is  grown  as  a  staple  crop  it  is  usually  cut  for  hut 
two  successive  seasons,  but  in  some  favored  situations 
several  successive  crops  are  grown.  When  timothy  only 
occupies  the  land  the  first  cutting  commonly  gives  the 
best  yield,  but  when  properly  dressed  with  fertilizers 
the  yield  ought  not  to  diminish  for  several  years. 

The  mower  is  almost  the  only  implement  used  for 
cutting  timothy,  but  on  new  land  where  stumps  abound 
it  may  be  necessary  to  cut  it  with  the  scythe.  The  fact 
should  not  be  lost  sight  of  that  under  some  conditions 
as  those  of  great  drought  the  stand  of  the  timothy  may 
be  injured  by  too  close  cutting  with  the  mower.  When 
the  weather  is  settled  and  bright,  the  crop  may  usually 
be  cut  one  day  and  stored  away  some  time  during  the 
following  day.  WThen  stored  thus  quickly  the  tedder 
usually  follows  the  mower,  but  with  an  interval  of  sev- 
eral hours  between.  The  crop  is  then  drawn  into  win- 
rows  with  the  horse-rake  and  is  loaded  from  these  with 
the  hay  loader  or  otherwise.  In  the  advanced  stages  of 
maturity,  it  may  be  possible  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions  to  cut  timothy  in  the  morning  and  store  it 
away  the  same  evening.  But  in  such  instances  a  free 
use  of  the  tedder  must  be  made.  In  showery  or  damp 
weather  and  especially  when  the  crop  is  cut  early,  it 
should  be  raked  as  soon  as  the  work  can  be  done  success- 
fully, and  then  put  up  into  cocks  until  cured.  When 
thus  put  up,  rain  will  not  penetrate  these  or  injure  the 
hay  nearly  so  readily  as  though  it  were  clover.  When 
clover  and  timothy  are  much  mixed  and  especially  when 


TIMOTHY.  76 

clover  is  abundantly  present  the  safer  plan  is  to  cure 
the  hay  in  cocks.  But  a  mixture  of  timothy  is  favor- 
able rather  than 'otherwise  to  the  curing  of  clover  since 
it  cures  more  readily. 

Securing  Seed. — When  the  timothy  crop  is  intended 
for  seed,  it  may  be  necessary  to  spend  some  time  in  re- 
moving weeds  from  the  same  either  by  hand  pulling 
or  by  using  the  spud,  or  what  is  usually  better  by 
using  both.  This  of  course  should  be  done  before  any 
of  the  seeds  mature. 

Among  the  noxious  weeds  that  sometimes  infest  tim- 
othy meadows  are:  Pigeon  weed  (Lithospermum  ar- 
vense),  sometimes  called  red  root;  Wild  flax  (Camelina 
Sfitiva),  sometimes  called  false  flax;  the  Canada  thistle 
(Cirsium  arvense),  blue  weed  (Echium  vulgare), 
French  weed  (Thalaspi  arvense)  and  Hungarian  mus- 
tard (Sisymbrium  sinapistrum)  ;  also  couch  or  quack 
grass  (Agropyrum  repens).  All  these  mature  their 
seeds  before  timothy  is  harvested  for  seed. 

Timothy  is  ready  for  being  harvested  for  seed  when 
the  seeds  turn  brown  and  as  soon  as  ready  it  should 
be  promptly  harvested  and  put  in  shock.  If  not  har- 
vested with  reasonable  promptness  and  if  left  stand- 
ing long  in  the  shock  when  harvested  there  is  likely  to 
be  considerable  loss  from  the  shedding  of  the  seed.  The 
binder  can  best  be  used  in  cutting  the  seed  crop.  The 
next  best  implement  would  probably  be  the  self  rake 
reaper.  When  thus  cut,  however,  the  labor  in  handling- 
would  be  greater.  The  crop  may  be  threshed  at  once 
or  it  may  be  stored  for  threshing  as  desired.  It  is 
threshed  with  the  ordinary  threshing  machine,  but  the 


76  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GltOW  THEM. 

wind  must  be  shut  off  sufficiently  to  do  the  work  prop- 
erly. The  hay  or  straw,  as  it  is  sometimes  called  \vjien 
threshed,  has  some  feeding  value,  hut  it  is  very  woody 
and  is  not  much  relished  by  live  stock.  The  stripper 
has  occasionally  been  used  in  gathering  the  seed  but 
when  thus  gathered  the  straw  is  virtually  of  no  use  for 
grazing  stock. 

The  seed  should  be  carefully  fanned  before  putting 
it  on  the  market.  The  aim  should  be  to  so  clean  it 
that  it  will  take  the  market  as  No.  1  and  so  bring  the 
highest  price.  This  it  will  not  do  unless  carefully 
cleaned,  and  with  a  fanning  mill  well  furnished  with 
sieves,  no  matter  how  good  the  quality  of  the  seed  may 
be,  it  will  be  found  difficult  to  remove  some  kinds  of 
weed  seeds  that  may  be  present.  It  may  also  prove 
difficult  if  not  impossible  even  to  remove  all  the  clover 
seeds  that  may  be  present  should  this  be  desired.  Espe- 
cially is  this  true  of  alsike  clover,  the  seeds  of  which 
are  so  nearly  of  the  same  size  as  those  of  timothy.  But 
some  of  the  seeds  of  medium  red  and  mammoth  clover 
may  be  so  small  that  they  even  cannot  be  all  removed. 
When  timothy  is  wanted  for  seed,  therefore,  it  is  not 
wise  to  grow  clover  or  the  clovers  along  with  it.  But 
for  home  sowing  the  presence  of  clover  seed  in  many 
instances  would  not  be  objectionable. 

As  many  as  7  or  8  bushels  of  seed  have  been  threshed 
from  an  acre  of  timothy,  but  from  3  to  4  bushels  would 
be  a  good  crop,  4  bushels  being  above  the  average.  In 
some  instances  not  more  than  2  bushels  are  realized  per 
acre.  Several  crops  of  seed  may  be  taken  in  successive 
years  from  such  soils,  but  the  tendency  of  such  crop- 


TIMOTHY.  77 

ping*  even  in  these  is  to  decrease  the  yields,  since  pro- 
ducing seed  tells  adversely  on  the  vitality  of  the  plants. 
Growing  timothy  seed  is  hard  on  land. 

Through  the  medium  of  timothy  seed,  many  foul 
weeds  have  been  introduced,  hence  the  importance  of 
getting  good  pure  seed.  At  every  seed  warehouse,  va- 
rious grades  may  be  purchased,  but  good  pure  seed 
only  should  be  bought  by  the  farmer;  notwithstanding 
that  it  will  be  higher  priced  than  the  other  grades.  It 
could  not  be  otherwise.  But  in  a  majority  of  instances, 
where  timothy  can  be  grown  successfully,  the  farmer 
can  and  ought  to  grow  his  own  seed.  When  doing  so 
he  simply  requires  to  select  a  part  of  a  field,  usually 
not  more  than  two  or  three  acres,  in  which  the  timothy 
plants  are  vigorous  and  free  from  weeds.  This  when 
ripe  can  be  harvested  and  threshed  as  described  above 
and  at  the  same  time  as  the  grain  is  threshed.  If  per- 
fectly free  from  noxious  weeds,  winnowing  such  seed 
further  would  not  even  seem  much  of  a  necessity.  In 
this  way  seed  could  be  saved  from  year  to  year  that 
would  be  always  fresh  and  pure. 

Renewing. — The  attempt  is  seldom  made  to  renew 
timothy  meadows  which  at  one  time  possessed  a  good 
stand  of  plants,  except  by  top  dressing  them  with  fer- 
tilizers. But  there  are  instances  in  which  when  the 
seed  is  sown,  only  a  partial  stand  is  secured.  Some 
parts  of  the  area  sown,  as  the  lower  land  for  instance, 
may  have  a  good  stand,  and  the  higher  land  an  imper- 
fect stand  or  even  no  stand  at  all,  and  yet  it  may  in 
desirable  to  grow  timothy  on  such  areas.  This  may  in 
some  instances  be  accomplished  by  sowing  seed  where 


78  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

more  plants  are  wanted  in  the  early  autumn,  and  cover- 
ing with  the  harrow,  even  at  the  risk  of  sacrificing  some 
of  the  plants  already  growing.  In  others  the  seed  is 
sown  in  the  early  spring  without  harrowing  and  in  yet 
others  it  is  sown  later  in  the  spring  and  harrowed. 
Whether  the  attempt  to  thus  complete  the  stand  of  the 
plants  all  over  the  field  will  be  preferable  to  ploughing 
the  land  again  and  re-seeding  it,  will  depend  chiefly 
upon  the  proportion  of  the  entire  area  on  which  a  suffi- 
cient stand  has  been  secured. 

In  pastures,  timothy  as  other  grasses  is  sometimes 
renewed  by  adding  more  seed.  This  may  be  done  in 
the  same  way  as  meadows  are  renewed,  as  described 
in  the  preceding  paragraph,  but  in  some  instances  the 
ground  is  disked  before  adding  the  seed.  In  yet  others 
winter  or  spring  rye  is  added  on  the  disked  parts  to  pro- 
vide pasture  speedily.  And  yet  again  timothy  is  sown 
but  not  with  much  frequency  and  chiefly  with  the  seed 
of  other  pasture  plants  on  pastures  that  have  been  disked 
for  the  purpose  of  improving  them. 


CHAPTEK  IV. 

KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS. 

Blue  grass  is  of  several  varieties.  But  two  of  these, 
however,  are  of  very  much  importance  in  furnishing 
pasture  or  hay.  These  are  the  varieties  known  as  (Poa 
pratensis)  and  (Poa  compressa).  The  former  is  more 
commonly  known  as  Kentucky  blue  grass,  hut  it  is  also 
called  June  grass,  from  the  fact,  doubtless,  that  more 
commonly  it  matures  its  seeds  in  June.  It  has  also 
been  called  Spear  grass,  and  Smooth  Stalked  Meadow 
grass.  The  latter  is  usually  spoken  of  as  Flat-Stemmed 
Blue  grass  but  is  also  sometimes  called  Wire  grass  and 
Flat  Stalked  Meadow  grass.  A  third  variety  commonly 
spoken  of  as  Texas  Blue  grass  (Poa  arachmfera),  has 
been  found  of  considerable  value  in  certain  of  the  south- 
ern states,  but  the  discussion  of  this  variety  will  be  de- 
ferred and  taken  up  in  Chapter  XIV. 

Poa  pratensis  varies  in  height  from  a  few  inches  to 
18  or  20  inches,  but  on  average  soils  the  height  is  about 
15  inches,  although  under  the  most  favorable  conditions 
it  grows  much  higher. 

The  stem  is  erect,  smooth  and  round,  and  the  panicle 
is  also  erect  and  spreading.  The  leaves  are  relatively 
small  and  numerous.  The  whole  plant  is  of  a  light 
green  color,  but  the  spikelets  frequently  assume  a  brown- 
ish purple  tint,  somewhat  resembling  the  tint  of  red 


80  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

top.  The  root-stocks  are  creeping,  and  when  well  set 
they  fill  the  sod  with  a  close  dense  turf  on  a  favorable 
soil,  hut  it  possesses  the  soil  somewhat  slowly,  hence, 
two  or  three  years  must  usually  transpire  before  it  thus 
possesses  the  soil.  Poa  compressa  grows  to  the  height 
of  about  1  foot,  but,  through  liberal  fertilizing  may  be 
grown  to  the  height  of  2  or  even  3  feet.  The  stems  are 
upright  and  flattened  and  are  nearly  solid.  The  pani- 
cle is  short  and  compact,  but  expands  at  the  flowering 
season.  The  leaves  are  short  and  fairly  numerous. 
The  whole  plant  is  of  a  dark  bluish  green  color,  and 
the  stems  retain  their  color  after  the  seeds  have  matured. 
The  root-stocks  are  creeping  but  under  American  condi- 
tions do  not  fill  the  soil  so  completely  as  those  of  the 
other  variety. 

Poa  pratensis  begins  to  grow  reasonably  early  in  the 
spring  and  is  at  its  best  for  pasture  in  the  month  of 
May  or  June.  It  pushes  up  its  seed-heads  rapidly  and 
evenly  and  quickly  matures  its  seed.  The  heads  and 
stems  soon  assume  a  yellow  tint,  and  growth  even  of  the 
leaves  practically  ceases,  if  the  weather  is  dry,  until 
the  early  fall  rains  come.  The  leaves  then  push  out 
again  with  much  vigor  and  continue  to  grow  until  frost 
comes,  and  where  the  climate  is  not  severe  they  keep 
green  all  winter.  Poa  compressa  does  not  start  quite 
as  early  as  Poa  pratensis  in  the  spring.  It  grows  more 
slowly  and  comes  into  flower  several  weeks  later.  It 
usually  matures  seed  in  July.  While  it  retains  its 
greenness  for  a  long  period,  it  does  not  grow  so  freely 
in  the  autumn  as  Poa  pratensis.  Nevertheless  under 
favorable  conditions  it  also  furnishes  good  winter  pas- 
ture. 


i     / 


FIG.  3. 
KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS   (Poa  pratensis). 

Oregon  Experiment  Station. 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS.  83 

Both  varieties  are  very  palatable.  All  kinds  of  stock 
are  exceedingly  fond  of  both ;  both  are  exceedingly  nu- 
tritious ;  while  both  are  hardy,  Poa  compressa  is  prob- 
ably the  hardier  in  so  far  at-  least  as  it  has  greater  power 
to  grow  on  poor,  stiff,  arid,  dry  soils.  Poa  pratensis 
is  the  better  pasture  grass,  but  Poa  compressa  is  much 
the  superior  for  hay.  The  former  is  highly  prized 
and  is  freely  sown,  whereas  the  latter  has  not  been  taken 
at  its  true  worth,  and  has  usually  grown  as  it  were  spon- 
taneously. Consequently  its  distribution  does  not  near- 
ly equal  that  of  the  other  variety.  Taking  it  all  in  all, 
Kentucky  blue  grass  is  probably  the  most  valuable  pas- 
ture grass  in  America,  but  some  authorities  claim  first 
place  in  this  respect  for  orchard  grass.  Unquestion- 
ably, however,  blue  grass  is  more  generally  grown  in 
the  United  States  than  orchard  grass,  and  the  prefer- 
ence thus  shown  for  blue  grass  is  not  accidental  since 
blue  grass  is  more  palatable  and  nutritious  and  has  a 
wider  distribution. 

Distribution. — Blue  grass  (Poa  pratensis)  and  also 
(Poa  compressa)  are  indigenous  to  Europe,  and  it  is 
thought  also  to  certain  parts  of  the  United  States.  It 
is  thought  to  be  native  to  the  Wabash  valley  having  been 
found  growing  there  in  1811  by  the  troops  of  William 
Henry  Harrison  on  their  march  to  Tippecanoe.  It 
grows  in  considerable  areas  of  Asia  also  and  in  certain 
parts  of  New  Zealand  and  Australia.  It  is  becoming 
in  a  sense  cosmopolitan  in  the  temperate  zone.  But 
nowhere  does  it  gr^w  better  than  in  certain  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  In  these  it  is  more  highl/ 
prized  than  in  Great  Britain,  since  in  that  country  its 


84  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

aggressive  character  enables  it  to  crowd  other  valuable 
grasses  out  of  the  permanence  which  ought  to  be  re- 
tained in  the  same. 

These  two  varieties  of  blue  grass  grow  best  in  tem- 
perate climates.  They  can  stand  much  cold  in  win- 
ter and  also  heat  in  summer  without  succumbing  to 
either,  but  they  do  not  grow  well  in  a  dry  climate  or 
under  conditions  too  dry  for  the  successful  growth  of 
the  common  cereals.  It  is  found  at  its  best  where  the 
rains  are  moderate  and  frequent  throughout  much  of 
the  year. 

It  is  doubtless  correct  to  say  that  blue  grass  is  grown 
more  or  less  in  every  state  and  territory  in  the  Union. 
It  would  be  equally  correct  to  say  that  from  the  Missis- 
sippi to  the  Atlantic  it  occupies  more  territory  than 
any  other  grass,  and  that  in  the  greater  portion  of  the 
territory  thus  occupied  it  has  been  found  more  useful 
in  providing  grazing  than  any  other  grass.  The  same 
statement  will  apply  with  almost  equal  force  to  the 
country  westward  from  the  Mississippi  for  a  consider- 
able distance,  or  until  the  areas  are  reached  in  which 
the  rainfall  is  light.  From  the  line  which  forms  the 
eastward  border  of  the  area  named  until  the  Rocky 
mountains  are  reached,  and  in  the  plains  between  the 
mountains,  as  for  instance,  the  bench  lands  in  the  Big 
Bend  country  in  Washington,  the  conditions  are  too 
dry  for  the  successful  growth  of  blue  grass.  But  in 
the  bench  lands  of  the  foot  hills  it  is  being  found  that 
blue  grass  will  yet  fulfill  a  not  unimportant  mission. 
This  grass  grows  at  its  best  in  the  United  States  in  the 
limestone  soils  of  Kentucky  and  in  the  states  lying 


KENTUCKY  BLUB  GRASS.  85 

northward  from  these  until  the  lakes  are  reached. 
These  are  the  soils  that  grow  hardwood  timber,  as  for 
instance  hard  maple,  elm,  basswood,  ash,  birch  and 
burr  oak.  The  very  highest  adaptation  for  it,  there- 
fore, is  found  in  what  were  the  hardwood  timber  areas 
of  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Ohio, 
New  York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota.  It 
also  prevails  in  the  New  England  and  eastern  states. 
While  in  them  the  climate  is  very  suitable  for  growing 
it,  the  prevailing  soils  are  such  as  only  to  produce  q 
moderate  growth.  In  the  southern  states  and  especially 
on  the  uplands  and  mountains  blue  grass  grows  freely. 
But,  because  of  certain  soil  peculiarities  in  some  of 
these,  it  has  been  stated  that  it  is  not  so  nutritious  as 
on  the  limestone  soils  of  the  central  states.  On  soils 
in  the  south  that  are  sandy,  the  lack  of  fertility  and 
the  summer  heat  are  adverse  to  high  production  in  blue 
grass  as  pasture  or  as  hay.  On  the  moist  Pacific  slope 
in  Washington  and  Oregon  this  grass  grows  with:  much 
satisfaction  where  it  has  been  introduced. 

In  Canada,  blue  grass  grows  in  good  form  in  all  the 
timber  country  from  Winnipeg  to  the  Atlantic.  Nat- 
urally infertile  soils  are  against  the  most  abundant  pro- 
duction in  much  of  the  soil  in  the  maritime  provinces, 
but  in  Ontario  blue  grass  grows  with  as  much  luxuri- 
ance as  in  Kentucky,  with  the  difference,  however,  thai 
the  season  for  its  growth  is  shorter  than  in  Kentucky. 
In  the  prairie  soils  between  Winnipeg  and  the  moun- 
tains, blue  grass  can  be  grown,  but  less  satisfactorily 
as  Winnipeg  is  receded  from  until  the  Rocky  mountains 
are  reached.  In  this  area  Russian  hrome  (Bromus  in- 


86  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

ermis)  will  be  superior.  West  of  the  mountains  is  a 
country  high  in  adaptation  to  the  growing  of  blue  grass. 
But  in  no  part,  of  Canada  does  blue  grass  grow  better 
than  in  Ontario.  In  some  parts  of  that  province  its 
growth  is  not  excelled  on  any  portion  of  the  American 
continent. 

Soil.- — Blue  grass  is  adapted  to  many  kinds  of  soil. 
In  fact  there  is.  scarcely  any  variety  of  the  same  in 
which  it  will  not  grow  to  some  extent  unless  it  be  soil 
charged  with  alkali  in  a  considerable  degree,  or  sandy 
soil  low  in  fertility  and  deficient  in  moisture.  The 
wide  range  in  adaptation  to  soil  conditions  which  this 
grass  possesses,  along  with  the  even  wider  range  which 
it  has  of  accommodating  itself  to  climatic  conditions 
chiefly  account  for  the  fact,  that  on  the  '^orth  American 
continent  it  is  now  or  is  eventually  going  to  be  practi- 
cally cosmopolitan  in  one  of  its  varieties. 

The  highest  conditions  for  the  growth  of  blue  grass 
are  found  in  clay  loam  soils  and  more  particularly  in 
those  underlaid  with  clay  sufficiently  retentive  to  retain 
moisture  at  least  in  fair  degree,  and  yet  sufficiently  open 
to  prevent  water  from  lying  unduly  on  the  surface.  In 
other  words  the  highest  conditions  for  growing  blue 
grass  are  found  in  soils  well  adapted  to  the  growth 
of  what  are  termed  hard  woods  of  varied  character. 
This  explains,  in  part  at  least,  why  blue  grass  so  quick- 
ly takes  possession  of  forest  lands  when  cleared  and 
kept  clear  of  timber. 

Next  in  adaptation,  probably,  come  rather  stiff  clays, 
the  producing  powers  of  which  have  not  been  impaired 
by  working  when  unduly  wet  or  by  pasturing  when  in 


KENTUCKY  BLUB  GRASS.  87 

a  similar  condition.  After  these  may  be  placed  loam 
soils,  giving  the  precedence  of  course  to  clay  loams, 
rather  than  to  sandy  loams.  The  humus  soils  of  the 
western  prairies,  originally  devoid  of  timber,  cannot 
be  said  to  be  possessed  of  the  highest  adaptation  for 
blue  grass.  On  the  other  hand  the  adaptation  of  these 
is  not  low.  It  is  true,  nevertheless,  that  ordinarily 
blue  grass  does  not  make  in  these  that  thick,  close,  dense 
growth  that  it  makes  in  clay  loam  soils,  nor  will  it  with- 
stand vicissitude  so  well.  This  explains,  in  part  at 
least,  the  greater  difficulty  in  maintaining  excellent  blue 
grass  lawns  in  cities  built  on  purely  prairie  humus 
soils.  On  the  soils  of  the  far  west  volcanic  in  their 
origin,  blue  grass  will  grow  well  where  moisture  is  suffi- 
ciently present,  but  in  much  of  the  area  covered  b\ 
these  soils,  water  is  wanting  in  that  degree  which  hin- 
ders seriously  the  growth  of  the  grass. 

The  degree  of  the  adaptation  on  muck  lands  for  grow- 
ing blue  grass  depends  much  on  the  nature  of  the  muck 
and  on  what  lies  beneath  it.  If  the  muck  is  consider- 
ably mixed  with  soil  washed  down  from  higher  land, 
and  if  at  the  same  time  it  is  underlaid  with  clay,  other 
conditions  being  correct,  blue  grass  will  grow  admir- 
ably. On  the  other  hand,  if  the  muck  is  chiefly  or  en- 
tirely composed  of  vegetable  matter  so  little  reduced 
that  many  of  the  characteristics  of  peat  appertain  to 
it,  its  adaptation  to  the  growth  of  blue  grass  will  be 
considerably  lessened.  If  it  is  underlaid  with  quick 
sand,  the  degree  of  the  adaptation  will  be  still  further 
lessened. 

In  peat  soils  the  adaptation  for  blue  grass  is  lower 


88  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

than  in  muck  soils  but  much  depends  on  the  character 
of  the  peat.  If  much  reduced  and  the  supply  of  moist- 
ure is  ample,  such  a  soil  may  maintain  a  good  growth 
of  blue  grass,  but,  if  the  peat  is  but  little  reduced  and 
if  the  moisture  is  deficient,  as  it  sometimes  is  in  swamps 
too  deeply  drained,  the  grass  may  not  be  able  to  main- 
tain a  stand  upon  it. 

From  what  has  been  said  about  muck  and  peat  soils, 
it  is  very  evident  that  the  adaptation  of  these  to  the 
growth  of  blue  grass  will  vary  exceedingly.  In  some 
instances,  more  particularly  when  they  are  mixed  with 
deposits  brought  in  from  higher  ground,  and  moreover 
when  the  water-table  lies  at  a  correct  distance  from  the 
surface,  such  soils  produce  pasture  with  much  abun- 
dance and  continuity.  Under  other  conditions  the  re- 
turns are  meagre,  and  under  yet  other  conditions  this 
grass  may  refuse  to  grow  at  all  on  peaty  soils.  When 
soil  saturation  is  unduly  abundant  and  prolonged, 
coarser  grasses  will  be  sustained,  as  for  instance  wire 
grass.  Nevertheless  it  is  true  that  blue  grass  will  live 
under  a  thin  covering  of  water  at  certain  seasons  for 
several  weeks. 

Whether  blue  grass  will  grow  at  all  on  sandy  soils 
with  but  little  earth  in  them  will  depend  almost  entirely 
on  the  degree -of  moisture  present  in  them  during  the 
growing  season.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  certain 
moist  sandy  loam  soils  which  are  highly  adapted  to  its 
growth.  All  degrees  of  adaptation  are  found  between 
these  extremes  in  sandy  soils,  according  as  they  are  in- 
fluenced by  components  other  than  sand,  by  moisture 
and  by  temperature.  But,  as  a  rule,  the  adaptation  of 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS.  89 

really  sandy  soils  to  the  growth  of  blue  grass  is  low 
rather  than  high.  Poa  comprcssa  would  seem  to  be  the 
hardier  grass  of  the  two  since  it  will  grow  reasonably 
well  on  dry,  sandy,  thin  soils  and  gravelly  knolls  provid- 
ing the  rainfall  is  sufficient.  JSTevertheless,  moist  grav- 
elly clays  are  much  better  suited  to  its  growth. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Blue  grass  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  term,  is  not  a  rotation  crop,  since  its  highest  use 
is  the  production  of  pasture,  and  because  it  takes  more 
than  one  year  to  establish  a  good  blue  grass  pasture.  A 
place  is  seldom  given  to  it,  therefore,  in  short  rotations, 
but  of  course  as  with  alfalfa,  it  has  a  place  in  long  ro- 
tations. In  other  words  there  are  certain  crops  which 
it  may  be  made  to  follow  or  precede  with  more  of  fit- 
ness than  if  made  to  follow  or  precede  other  crops. 
Owing,  however,  to  its  aggressive  character  it  may  be 
made  to  follow  almost  any  crop. 

As  with  all  other  grasses  it  will  become  established 
more  quickly  and  will  grow  more  vigorously  when  sown 
on  clean  rather  than  on  foul  land.  The  aim  should  be, 
therefore,  to  sow  it  after  some  cleaning  crop  as  corn, 
sorghum,  the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  potatoes,  beans, 
cow  peas  and  soy  beans  when  these  crops  have  been 
given  clean  cultivation.  But  there  may  be  conditions 
in  which  it  may  be  proper  to  sow  blue  grass  on  soil  that 
is  foul  with  certain  forms  of  weed  life,  and  also  worn, 
as  for  instance,  when  the  pasture  is  wanted  at  the 
earliest  moment  practicable,  and  no  other  soil  properly 
prepared  is  at  hand  on  which  to  sow  it.  Observe,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  only  in  exigencies  that  this  course  is  to 
be  commended.  When  once  it  has  obtained  a  foothold 


yo  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

on  such  soils,  it  will  soon  prove  more  than  a  match  for 
nearly  all  lorms  oi  weed  lile. 

I'rcparuiy  UIQ  tioil. — The  preparation  that  is  best 
suited  LO  liie  sowing  of  blue  grass  will  vary  with  the 
soil,  the  climatic  conditions,  and  the  season  lor  sow- 
ing, bandy  soils  and  also  humus  and  muck  soils  are 
usually  possessed  of  a  pulverization  sufficiently  tine  to 
secure  good  germination  in  the  seed.  The  labor  in 
preparing  these  is  one  of  smoothing  and  levelling  rather 
man  one  oi  pulverizing  after  they  have  been  ploughed 
or  disked,  in  some  instances  impaction,  through  the 
use  of  the  roller,  will  be  helpful.  Loam  soils  may  call 
for  more  of  pulverization,  but  usually  the  labor  in  pre- 
paring these  is  not  great.  Clay  soils  are  the  most  diffi- 
cult by  far  to  prepare,  owing  to  the  labor  called  for  in 
pulverizing  them.  In  many  instances  they  are  cloddy, 
hence  much  harrowing  and  roiling  alternately  are  usual- 
ly necessary  to  secure  a  tilth  sufficiently  hne.  This 
work  may  in  some  instances  be  greatly  facilitated  by  not 
failing  to  take  advantage  of  propitious  seasons  for  se- 
curing the  requisite  fineness  of  pulverization,  as  for  in- 
siance,  alter  the  falling  of  gently  saturating  rains,  but 
not  too  soon  after  these  fall.  Where  rainiall  is  abun- 
dant and  well  distributed,  a  fine  pulverization  is  not 
so  necessary  as  under  conditions  the  opposite. 

On  lands  newly  cleared  of  timber,  no  further  prepa- 
ration is  necessary  or  even  possible  usually,  than  clear- 
ing off  the  encumbering  logs  and  brush.  And  even 
such  clearing  may  not  always  be  absolutely  necessary, 
as  among  logs  and  brush  not  dense  or  tall,  it  may  be 
quite  possible  to  start  blue  grass  growing.  On  stubble 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS.  91 

lands  where  blue  grass  is  sown  in  the  autumn,  it  may 
in  some  instances  be  advisable  to  plough  the  land,  as 
when  it  is  very  foul  with  weeds.  In  other  instances, 
disking  may  suffice,  as  when  the  surface  is  clean  but 
unduly  firm.  And  in  yet  other  instances  no  prepara- 
tion may  be  necessary,  as  when  the  surface  is  clean,  soft 
and  moist. 

When  the  seed  is  sown  on  clay  soils  in  the  autumn,  a 
pulverization  of  soil  less  fine  will  answer  than  if  sown 
on  the  same  in  the  spring,  especially  when  these  are 
exposed  to  alternations  of  freezing  and  thawing  during 
the  winter,  and  to  the  sweep  of  cold  winds.  But  when 
sown  on  these  in  the  spring  also,  pulverization  too  fine 
would  be  possible,  especially  in  climates  where  occa- 
sionally downpours  of  rain  occur,  as  these  would  encrust 
clay  surfaces  when  fine  beyond  a  certain  degree. 

When  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  spring,  fine  pulveriza- 
tion is  more  necessary  than  in  the  autumn,  and  for 
reasons  that  will  be  apparent  from  what  has  been  said 
above.  But,  happily  the  degree  of  the  pulverization 
that  is  best  suited  to  the  nurse  crop  will  also  be  best 
suited  to  the  blue  grass  sown  with  it.  That  it  is  so  is 
fortunate,  since,  unless  when  sown  for  permanent  pas- 
ture, it  is  more  common  to  sow  blue  grass  with  a  nurse 
crop,  the  reasons  for  which  are  given  later.  (See  page 
94.) 

It  is  not  usual  to  fertilize  land  on  which  blue  grass 
is  to  be  sown  with  a  view  specially  to  promote  the  growth 
of  the  blue  grass.  Since  it  is  able  to  get  and  to  main- 
tain a  hold  on  nearly  all  kinds  of  soil  without  such  aid, 
fertilizers  are  usually  reserved  for  crops  which  have 


92  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

less  power  to  gather  plant  food  in  the  soil.  Fertilizers 
that  are  suitable  for  timothy  will  also  be  suitable  for 
blue  grass.  (See  page  72.)  The  method  of  fertiliz- 
ing the  pastures  by  top  dressing  them,  would  seem  to 
be  preferred  to  that  which  fertilizes  the  land  on  which 
the  seed  is  to  be  sown,  as  the  young  plants  grow  too  slow- 
ly to  make  the  best  use  possible  of  the  fertility  thus  ap- 
plied. But  lands  that  are  well  filled  with  vegetable 
matter  are  much  more  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the 
young  plants  than  land  in  which  the  same  is  deficient. 

Sowing. — In  northern  areas  it  is  more  common  to 
sow  blue  grass  in  the  spring  than  in  the  autumn,  and 
probably  for  the  reason  chiefly,  that  it  is  more  conven- 
ient to  sow  it  then,  especially  when  sown  as  it  usually 
is  in  the  north,  along  with  other  grass  mixtures.  But 
it  may  in  some  instances  be  sown  with  much  advantage 
in  these  areas  in  the  fall.  In  fact  it  is  possible  to  sow 
it  successfully  under  some  conditions  during  almost  any 
part  of  the  season  of  growth.  When  sown  in  the  spring, 
the  earlier  that  it  is  sown  the  more  successfully  it  is 
likely  to  grow.  When  sown  in  the  autumn,  the  sooner 
that  it  is  put  into  the  ground  after  moisture  comes,  the 
more  certain  is  the  stand  likely  to  be.  In  the  states 
of  the  middle  south  as  for  instance,  Kentucky,  where 
probably  this  grass  grows  at  its  best,  it  is  commonly 
sown  in  the  autumn,  especially  when  sown  by  itself  to 
provide  permanent  pasture. 

Nature  teaches  an  important  lesson  with  reference 
to  the  sowing  of  this  grass.  Where  not  grazed  too  close- 
ly it  sows  a  crop  of  seed  every  year.  The  seed  matures 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS.  93 

upon  the  stalk  and  then  falls  down  or  is  wafted  by  the 
winds  to  adjacent  areas.  Under  normal  conditions  the 
seed  thus  wafted  would  seem  to  have  much  power  to 
grow.  Of  this  fact  evidence  is  furnished  in  the  almost 
absolute  certainty  with  which  blue  grass  ultimately 
takes  possession  of  waste  land  in  a  locality  into  which  it- 
has  once  been  introduced  and  in  which  any  of  the  seed 
is  allowed  to  mature. 

The  seed  thus  scattered  must,  in  great  part  at  least, 
grow  without  a  covering,  hence  the  plan  of  growing  blue 
grass  seed  as  soon  as  practicable  after  it  is  gathered, 
even  though  it  should  be  sown  in  the  chaff,  would  seem 
to  be  a  commendable  one.  In  southern  latitudes,  there- 
fore, it  would  seem  to  be  the  better  plan  to  sow  blue 
grass  seed  in  the  late  summer  and  early  autumn,  since 
in  these  it  is  nearly  always  practicable  to  sow  it  at  that 
season.  The  power  which  this  grass  has  to  grow  with- 
out a  covering,  especially  when  it  is  fresh  and  sown  in 
the  chaff,  explains  why  a  stand  can  usually  be  obtained 
with  much  certainty  by  cutting  the  grass  like  hay  as 
soon  as  the  seed  matures  and  scattering  it  over  the 
ground  where  a  stand  is  desired.  The  hay  thus  scat- 
tered affords  protection  for  the  young  plants  that  grow 
from  the  seeds  when  they  come  in  contact  with  the 
earth.  Blue  grass  has  thus  been  introduced  on  to  sod- 
bound  native  prairie  where  close  pasturing  has  followed 
this  method  of  scattering  the  hay.  It  may  be  scattered 
thus  from  the  stack  in  winter  if  desired. 

Blue  grass  is  nearly  always  sown  by  hand,  partly 
for  the  reason  that  but  few  if  any  machines  yet  intro- 
duced sow  it  satisfactorily,  and  also  because  the  danger 


94       GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

would  be  present  that  in  some  soils  at  least,  drill  ma- 
chines would  cover  the  seed  too  deeply.  When  sown 
in  mixtures,  it  is  common  to  mix  the  blue  grass  seeds 
along  with  the  seeds  of  other  grasses  before  these  are 
sown.  It  is  usually  covered  with  a  light  harrow,  since, 
as  previously  intimated,  a  deep  covering  for  this  grass 
is  not  necessary,  although  the  proper  depth  at  which 
to  cover  it  will  vary  with  conditions.  On  soils  which 
incline  to  cloddiness,  the  roller  will  in  many  instances 
provide  a  sufficient  covering,  but  on  such  soils  it  ought 
not  to  be  covered  thus,  unless  the  harrow  is  made  to 
follow  the  roller. 

In  very  many  instances,  blue  grass  is  sown  with  a 
nurse  crop.  The  exceptions  include  lands  more  or  less 
deforested,  rugged  lands  difficult  of  tillage  and  by- 
places  generally.  Even  when  sown  to  provide  perma- 
nent pasture,  it  is  frequently  sown  thus,  but  to  this 
(here  are  some  exceptions  also,  especially  in  areas  the 
most  favorable  to  its  growth.  In  northern  areas,  win- 
ter rye  is  probably  the  best  nurse  crop  with  which  to  sow 
it,  and  chiefly  for  the  reason  that  it  may  be  sown  on  the 
rye  in  the  early  autumn  which  is  really  the  best  season 
for  sowing  it,  all  things  considered,  only  a  moderate 
seeding  of  the  rye  should  be  used.  If  the  rye  is  grazed  off 
in  the  spring,  the  blue  grass  will  develop  more  quickly 
and  strongly  than  if  the  rye  is  harvested.  In  areas 
with  winters  sufficiently  mild,  blue  grass  may  also  be 
sown  with  winter  barley  and  winter  oats,  also  winter 
wheat.  When  sown  in  the  spring  with  a  nurse  crop 
that  is  to  mature,  spring  rye  or  barley  is  the  most  favor- 
able to  the  growth  of  the  grass.  But  if  sown  with 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS.  95 

tli  in  seeding  of  oats  cut  early  for  hay,  the  results  will 
probably  be  quite  as  good. 

Blue  grass  should  not  be  sown  in  short  rotations,  since 
it  is  slow  in  becoming  well  established.  In  rotations 
of  some  considerable  duration,  it  is  frequently  sown  in 
combination  with  medium  red,  mammoth  or  alsike 
clover,  or  with  all  three  combined,  with  white  clover 
and  timothy  added.  The  clovers  and  timothy  are  in- 
tended to  furnish  grazing  until  the  blue  grass  becomes 
well  established.  Blue  grass,  orchard  grass  and  white 
clover  make  an  excellent  combination  for  such  rotations 
where  the  conditions  favor  the  growth  of  all  three.  On 
low-lying  soils  such  as  are  found  in  sloughs,  blue  grass, 
red  top,  timothy  and  alsike  clover  make  a  good  combi- 
nation for  hay  or  for  pasture.  In  latitudes  in  which 
the  winters  are  stern,  blue  grass,  Russian  brome  grass 
and  white  clover  grown  together,  promise  much  for 
such  rotations,  but  experience  in  growing  them  thus  is 
not  of  sufficient  duration  to  determine  fully  the  value  of 
such  a  pasture  crop.  It  is  not  yet  known  whether  blue 
grass  or  Russian  brome  if  sown  together  would  obtain 
the  mastery  or  if  both  would  continue  to  grow  indefinite- 
ly. On  lands  once  covered  with  forest,  it  is  probable 
that  blue  grass  would  crowd  the  Russian  brome,  but 
that  on  real  prairie  soils  the  reverse  would  prove  true. 
When  sown  in  mixtures  intended  for  permanent  pas- 
tures, the  relative  prominence  given  to  the  blue  grass 
should  increase  with  its  relative  adaptation  to  the  local- 
ity, and,  even  when  blue  grass  is  intended  to  be  virtually 
the  sole  grass  in  the  pasture,  white  clover  ought  to  be 
sown  along  with  it.  The  clover  probably  aids  the  growth 


96  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

of  the  blue  grass  rather  than  hinders  it,  since  it  brings 
nitrogen  to  the  soil.  It  also  grows  most  vigorously  after 
the  blue  grass  has  begun  its  summer  rest,  hence  the  sea- 
son of  pasturage  is  prolonged.  The  two  will  also  grow 
thus  together  for  an  indefinite  period. 

The  amounts  of  seed  to  sow  will  vary  with  soil  and 
climatic  conditions  and  with  the  combinations  in  which 
the  seed  is  sown.  When  sown  alone  on  good  soils  and 
without  a  nurse  crop  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  sow 
more  than  20  to  28  pounds  of  good  clean  seed  per 
acre,  but  if  sown  in  the  chaff  not  less  probably  than  3 
or  4  bushels  per  acre  would  be  required.  When  sown 
with  Russian  brome  grass  and  white  clover  without  a 
nurse  crop  6  pounds  of  the  brome  grass  and  1  pound  of 
the  clover,  and  10  pounds  of  the  blue  grass  per  acre  will 
usually  make  a  sufficient  seeding.  But  to  increase  the 
grazing  the  first  year,  it  will  doubtless  be  found  profit- 
able to  add  3  to  4  pounds  of  timothy  per  acre.  When 
sown  on  low  lands  with  timothy,  red  top  and  alsike  clo- 
ver, 4,  4  and  3  pounds  each  per  acre  of  these  respective 
forage  plants,  with  7  pounds  of  blue  grass  ought  to 
suffice.  When  the  mixture  consists  of  blue  grass,  tim- 
othy and  medium  red  or  mammoth  clover,  7  pounds  of 
the  blue  grass,  6  of  timothy  and  3  to  4  pounds  of  medi- 
um red  clover  per  acre  ought  to  suffice.  When  sown  in 
combination  with  many  varieties  of  grass  and  clover, 
as  in  making  permanent  pastures  mixed  in  character, 
usually  not  more  than  5  pounds  of  blue  grass  per  acre 
will  be  required.  Where  white  clover  is  not  already  es- 
tablished in  any  locality,  that  is,  where  it  has  not  been 
grown  long  enough  to  lodge  many  of  its  seeds  in  the 


KENTUCKY  BLUB  GRASS.  97 

soil,  it  will  always  or  nearly  always  be  in  order  to  add 
a  little  white  clover  to  any  of  the  mixtures  referred  to. 
In  some  instances  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  sow  blue 
grass  in  these,  since,  in  certain  soils  on  which  it  has 
been  grown  for  some  time,  these  would  seem  to  be  so 
filled  with  the  seed  that  blue  grass  within  two,  three  or 
four  years,  will  have  possessed  the  soil  to  the  extent  of 
crowding  the  other  grasses  to  their  injury. 

When  purchasing  blue  grass  seed,  much  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  character  of  the  same  in  regard 
to  cleanliness,  more  particularly  in  regard  to  freeness 
from  chaff.  The  standard  weight  of  blue  grass  is  14 
pounds  to  the  measured  bushel,  and  yet  as  handled  by 
seedsmen  the  weight  varies  from  8  to  30  pounds  per 
bushel.  This  point  should  not  be  overlooked  when  deter- 
mining the  amount  to  sow. 

Pasturing. — Under  certain  conditions  blue  grass  will 
readily  establish  itself,  though  live  stock  should  have 
constant  access  to  the  fields  where  it  has  been  sown. 
There  are  other  conditions  where  such  treading  wouLi 
injure  both  the  soil  and  also  the  grass.  But,  generally 
speaking,  grazing  closely  while  the  plants  are  young 
does  not  injure  blue  grass  as  it  would  other  grasses.  In 
fact  such  close  grazing  may  be  advantageous  to  it  by 
removing  shade,  as  when  the  seed  is  sown  on  the  un- 
broken prairie.  Until  blue  grass  becomes  well  establish- 
ed on  clay  soils,  it  should  not  be  grazed  when  these  are 
unduly  wet,  or  the  soil  will  poach  and  will  also  become 
impacted  to  the  injury  of  the  grazing.  However,  when 
blue  grass  has  covered  the  soil  with  a  thick  sod  it  may  be 
Grasses — 7. 


98  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

grazed  even  on  stiff  clays  with  but  little  injury  to  the 
land  at  nearly  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

Blue  grass  may  usually  be  grazed  closely  all  the  while 
without  destroying  the  stand  of  the  same.  But  when 
grazed  thus  a  maximum  of  pasture  under  the  conditions 
existing  cannot  be  secured,  and  the  drier  the  climate 
the  less,  relatively,  will  the  grazing  be  that  is  pro- 
duced. When  kept  eaten  down  closely,  the  capacity  of 
the  plants  to  grow  is  lessened,  through  a  less  vigorous 
vitality  than  they  would  otherwise  have,  and  through 
the  increased  exposure  of  the  soil  to  the  evaporating  in- 
fluences of  the  sun.  Such  exposure  in  winter  is  also 
adverse  to  the  most  vigorous  growth  and  this  influence 
is  intensified  with  increase  in  the  severity  of  the  cold 
when  the  ground  is  uncovered.  Grazing  in  winter  under 
such  conditions  is  also  to  some  extent  harmful,  but  blue 
grass  pasture  seldom  succumbs  entirely  because  of  close 
grazing,  on  account  of  adverse  climatic  conditions, 
where  it  has  once  become  established. 

To  obtain  the  largest  possible  amount  of  pasture  from 
blue  grass  it  should  not  be  grazed  closely  at  any  season. 
So  great  ordinarily  is  the  increase  in  the  yield  of  the 
pasture,  when  thus  managed,  that  in  some  instances  it 
is  not  grazed  at  all  in  the  spring.  When  thus  left  un- 
grazed  at  that  season,  the  grass  reaches  a  maximum  of 
growth  usually  in  May  or  June,  according  to  the  lati- 
tude, and  matures  more  or  less  seed.  The  seed  stems 
dry  so  as  to  be  of  little  service  for  food,  but  the  mass  of 
fine  leaves  near  the  ground  usually  retain  their  green- 
ness during  the  summer  and  renewed  growth  follows 
the  falling  of  autumnal  rains.  Such  pastures  furnish 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS.  99 

excellent  summer  and  autumn  grazing,  especially  for 
horses  and  cattle.  They  usually  lay  on  flesh  quickly 
while  being  thus  grazed.  In  climates  sufficiently  mild, 
these  pastures  also  furnish  good  winter  grazing  for  these 
classes  of  animals.  For  sheep  and  swine  they  are  not 
so  palatable,  because  of  the  presence  of  weedy  seed 
stems,  nevertheless  sheep  are  likely  to  do  well  on  such 
pastures  more  especially  in  the  winter.  They  and  also 
horses  will  even  paw  off  the  light  snows  and  maintain 
themselves  in  good  form  from  such  grazing  where  the 
climatic  conditions  are  not  too  severe. 

When  blue  grass  pastures  are  grazed  off  closely  in 
the  spring  and  early  summer,  and  the  stock  is  then  re- 
moved during  the  greater  part  of  the  season,  the  grass 
will  usually  make  a  good  growth.  Where  the  winters 
are  mild,  such  grazing  will  be  found  particularly  adapt- 
ed to  the  grazing  of  sheep.  But  when  covered  with 
white  frost,  animals  turned  upon  them  early  in  the  day 
should  first  have  access  to  some  kind  of  fodder,  lest  dis- 
orders in  the  digestion  should  be  produced.  Where  the 
winters  are  stern,  these  pastures  should  furnish  excel- 
lent grazing  in  the  early  spring.  They  begin  to  grow 
considerably  earlier  than  when  they  have  not  been  thus 
protected,  and  the  growth  is  more  vigorous.  The  fresh 
blades  growing  up  in  the  grass  add  to  its  palatability, 
and  the  blades  and  stems  that  have  cured  on  the  ground 
counteract  the  tendency  in  the  new  growth  at  such  a 
season  to  produce  in  animals  a  too  lax  condition  in  the 
digestion.  Moreover  these  pastures  furnish  abundant 
grazing  at  that  early  season  when  it  cannot  so  well  be 
obtained  from  any  other  source.  Blue  grass  whon  re- 


100  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

tained  for  pasturing  for  prolonged  periods  crowds  out 
nearly  all  kinds  of  weeds.  Among  the  exceptions  are 
ironweed  (Vernonia  noveboracensis),  blueweed  (Echi- 
um  vulgare),  the  oxeye  daisy  (Chrysanthemum  leucan- 
themum)  and  in  some  instances  the  Canada  thistle 
(Cirsium  arvense).  When  these  are  present  in  any 
considerable  numbers  it  may  be  advantageous  to  clip 
them  annually  with  the  scythe  or  with  the  field  mower 
to  prevent  them  from  maturing  seed,  as  live  stock  are  not 
likely  to  graze  them  off. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Blue  grass  being  rather  a  pas- 
ture than  a  hay  plant,  is  not  usually  made  into  hay, 
unless  in  the  absence  of  better  hay  products.  It  is  not 
sufficiently  bulky,  hence  the  yield  per  acre  is  not  large, 
and  unless  cut  with  much  promptness  as  soon  as  it 
reaches  the  proper  stage,  it  becomes  woody.  To  secure 
a  large  amount  of  blue  grass  hay  would  necessitate 
mowing  over  a  relatively  large  area  in  proportion  to 
the  bulk.  But  this  does  not  mean  that  blue  grass  does 
not  produce  a  large  amount  relatively  of  pasture  per 
acre,  since,  in  growing  pasture,  it  virtually  produces 
two  growths  in  the  year,  that  is,  in  the  spring  and  in 
the  autumn.  JSTor  do  the  above  remarks , apply  equally 
to  the  variety  Poa  compressa,  which,  in  suitable  soils, 
will  yield  at  least  -a  ton  per  acre  of  good  hay.  The  crop 
is  not  bulky,  but  it  weighs  very  heavily  in  proportion  to 
its  bulk  and  the  hay  is  much  relished,  especially  by 
horses.  Moreover  it  has  the  peculiar  property  of  gum- 
ming the  knives  of  the  mower  while  it  is  being  cut. 

Blue  grass  is  ready  for  being  cut  when  in  early  bloom. 
Tt  is  not  difficult  to  cure,  hence,  in  good  weather  it  may 


KENTUCKY  ,BJ;aj]E  Glts.  '>  - \ \  ]     ,'       101 

be  cured  in  the  winrow  after  having  lain  in  the  swath  for 
a  period  more  or  less  prolonged.  Running  the  tedder 
along  the  winrow  will  facilitate  the  curing  process,  but 
usually  the  crop  is  not  bulky  enough  to  call  for  the  use 
of  the  tedder,  before  it  is  raked  in  winrows.  Of  course 
it  may  be  cured  in  the  cock  when  desired,  and  when  thus 
put  up,  the  cocks  are  not  readily  penetrated  by  rain. 
This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  hay  cut  in  fence  corners 
and  by-places,  which  is  frequently  chiefly  blue  grass, 
has  long  furnished  a  favorite  material  for  topping  stacks 
of  grain,  clover  and  in  fact  nearly  all  kinds  of  farm 
crops. 

On  certain  soils,  blue  grass  conies  into  meadows  with- 
out being  sown,  and  so  as  to  furnish  a  large  part  of 
the  hay  crop.  In  these  instances  it  is  usually  ready  for 
cutting  earlier  than  other  grasses.  The  best  time  to  har- 
vest the  crop  under  such  conditions  should  be  deter- 
mined by  the  extent  to  which  the  other  hay  plants  are 
present,  and  by  their  proportionate  value  for  hay.  The 
aim  should  be  to  cut  the  crop  at  that  stage  which  will 
give  the  largest  amount  of  good  food,  though  some  of 
the  plants  should  be  over  mature  and  some  of  them  un- 
der mature. 

Securing  Seed. — While  it  would  seem  to  be  true  that 
blue  grass  is  capable  of  maturing  seed  in  any  climate  in 
which  the  plants  will  live,  it  is  also  true  that  the  prac- 
tice of  harvesting  it  for  seed  is  confined  to  but  limited 
areas.  At  the  present  time  the  larger  portion  of  the 
seed  sold  in  the  market  as  Kentucky  blue  grass  comes 
from  certain  counties  of  Kentucky,  Iowa  and  Missouri. 
Of  course,  some  other  states  furnish  more  or  less.  The 


102        /\  r(3R.A:SgBS-  AND  HOW  TLO  GROW  THEM. 

reason  why  the  states  named  furnish  so  much  seed  is 
owing  probably  to  the  relative  abundance  of  the  seed 
production  in  these,  but  is  also  owing  in  part,  doubt- 
less, to  the  fact  that  in  other  areas,  prolific  also  in  the 
production  of  seed,  the  farmers  have  not  yet  come  to 
realize  the  profit  that  may  accrue  from  harvesting  blue 
grass  seed.  Special  care  is  also  necessary  in  handling 
and  storing  the  seed,  as  shown  later,  and  this  may  also 
act  as  a  deterring  influence.  But,  whatever  the  reasons 
that  deter  farmers  from  harvesting  the  seed  for  market, 
with  the  aid  of  a  stripper  operated  by  hand  or  by  horse 
power,  they  may  without  difficulty  collect  seed  for  sow- 
ing on  their  own  farms  and  of  the  finest  quality,  which 
may  be  sown  in  the  chaff. 

The  seed,  as  just  intimated,  is  harvested  with  a  strip- 
per, of  which  there  are  two  leading  kinds,  viz.,  the  ro- 
tary and  the  comb.  The  former  is  simply  a  box  on 
wheels  with  a  revolving  cylinder  in  front  with  numer- 
ous wire  nails  in  it.  This  revolves  rapidly  and  throws 
the  seed  into  the  box.  The  latter  is  a  platform  hung  on 
wheels  and  has  in  front  a  heavy  steel  comb.  It  is  im- 
portant that  the  pastures  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  as 
any  leaves  of  these  which  grow  in  the  grass  will  be 
thrown  into  the  box  along  with  the  seed.  Portions  of 
the  heads  are  also  thus  mixed  with  the  seed.  The  revolv- 
ing stripper,  which  is  usually  about  as  wide  as  the  field 
mower,  can  harvest  more  acres  in  a  day  than  the  field 
mower,  since  it  may  be  driven  faster.  The  seed  is 
ready  for  being  harvested  as  soon  as  the  heads  turn 
brown.  The  harvesting  season  usually  lasts  from  say  10 
to  14  days,  but  this  is  influenced  by  locality  and  is  some- 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS.  105 

times  of  even  less  duration.  The  yield  of  course  varies 
greatly;  the  approximate  average  may  be  put  ai  7  to  8 
bushels  per  acre,  but  in  some  instances  as  many  as  25 
bushels  have  been  harvested. 

Great  care  must  be  used  in  curing  blue  grass  seed  or 
it  will  lose  its  germinating  power.  It  heats  very  read- 
ily, so  much  so,  that  what  is  gathered  should  be  emptied 
from  the  sacks  at  the  end  of  each  half  clay's  work.  It 
should  be  spread  on  a  tarpaulin  or  on  clean  ground  to  dry 
in  the  sun,  or  on  a  drying  floor  with  the  opportunity  for 
more  or  less  draught  to  pass  over  it.  On  the  floor  it 
would  not  be  well  to  spread  seed  more  deeply  than  two 
inches  at  the  first.  The  depth  may  be  gradually  in- 
creased, but  at  no  time  probably  should  it  be  more  than 
say  15  to  20  inches.  So  quickly  does  the  newly  stripped 
seed  heat  when  not  thinly  spread,  that  it  has  been  known 
to  entirely  lose  its  germinating  power  within  24  hours 
of  the  time  at  which  it  was  harvested.  While  newly 
harvested  seed  may  possess  95  per  cent  in  germinating 
power,  seed  put  upon  the  market  is  considered  good  when 
the  germinating  power  is  50  per  cent.  After  the  seed 
has  been  dried  sufficiently  it  is  usually  shipped  to  cer- 
tain centers  where  it  is  cleaned  with  machinery  espe- 
cially adapted  to  the  work. 

This  grass  will  furnish  seed  in  suitable  localities  for 
successive  years.  Nor  does  the  reaping  of  seed  hinder 
grazing  the  land  subsequently  the  same  season.  It  is 
claimed  that  after  the  seed  is  harvested,  more  grazing 
will  be  obtained  from  such  a  pasture  than  from  one 
that  has  been  grazed  closely  from  spring  until  fall.  The 
claim  is  probably  correct,  since  the  harvesting  only  re- 


104  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

moves  the  seed,  and  as  has  been  shown  previously,  close 
grazing  all  the  time  tends  to  lessen  production. 

Renewing. — The  renewing  of  blue  grass  pastures,  im- 
portant as  it  is,  calls  for  further  experimenting  before 
all  is  known  that  ought  to  be  known  with  reference  to  it, 
but  some  things  regarding  this  question  have  been  settled 
with  at  least  a  measure  of  definiteness.  Among  these 
are  the  following: 

1.  That  in  many  localities  blue  grass  pastures  at 
length  become  "sodbound?'  that  is,  the  plants  become 
so  numerous  and  the  roots  so  matted,  that  the  free 
growth  of  the  grass  is  so  hindered  that  the  maximum 
of  production  is  reduced  in  proportion  as  this  condition 
exists,  and  it  becomes  further  aggravated  in  dry  weath- 
er. 2.  That  this  sodbound  condition  may  be  so  dealt 
with  as  to  greatly  improve  the  yield  of  the  pasture  crops. 
This  has  been  attempted  in  various  ways,  but  chiefly 
through  the  aid  of  the  disk  harrow,  and  also  the  com- 
mon harrow,  has  it  been  successfully  accomplished.  The 
following  has  probably  been  the  most  successful  of  all 
the  ways  that  have  been  tried  of  renovating  blue  grass 
pastures  which  have  been  sodbound:  The  disk  harrow 
is  run  over  the  sod  at  that  season  when  the  frost  is  only 
out  sufficiently  to  allow  the  disks  to  cut  down  to  the 
depth  of  two  or  three  inches,  and  yet  the  frost  below  pre- 
cludes the  sinking  of  the  feet  of  the  horses  to  any  con- 
siderable depth.  The  disk  is  then  run  straight  crosswise 
or  at  an  angle  over  the  land  previously  disked.  The 
disks  are  set  so  as  to  leave  the  cuts  of  sod  somewhat  on 
edge.  The  harrow  then  follows  at  once  or  a  little  later. 
If  other  seed  is  to  be  sow^n,  as  white  clover,  or  orchard 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS.  105 

grass  or  both,  or  indeed  any  kind  of  clover,  it  should 
usually  be  sown  before  the  harrow.  The  necessity  for 
using  a  roller  will  depend  upon  conditions.  And  there 
may  be  some  soils,  as  for  instance,  very  stiff  clays, 
where  such  treatment  would  injure  the  land  through 
poaching,  unless  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  fol- 
lowed quite  soon.  This  method  of  renewal  has  succeeded 
well  on  prairie  soils.  But  the  attempts  to  improve  blue 
grass  pastures  by  simply  running  the  harrow  over  them 
have  not  proved  markedly  successful.  3.  That  when 
the  stand  of  the  seed  on  blue  grass  pastures  is  thin  or 
spotted,  it  may  be  renewed  in  some  instances  by  simply 
adding  more  seed.  In  other  instances  by  pasturing  so 
lightly  that  some  seed  will  mature  and  fall,  and  through 
its  subsequent  distribution  by  the  winds  will  strengthen 
the  pasture.  And  in  yet  other  instances  by  disking  those 
portions  of  the  pasture  with  but  little  grass  on  them 
and  sowing  and  adding  more  seed  along  with  rye  or  some 
other  grain.  When  more  seed  is  scattered  over  the 
pastures,  the  early  autumn  will  probably  prove  the  best 
season  for  sowing  it,  using,  if  possible,  fresh  seed,  and 
harrowing  or  not  harrowing,  according  to  conditions. 
The  next  most  favorable  season  for  doing  this  is  the 
early  spring.  Winter  rye  will  usually  be  found  the  most 
suitable  grain  to  sow  on  the  disked  portions  of  pastures, 
as,  if  sown  in  the  early  fall,  it  will  furnish  grazing  both 
fall  and  spring,  while  the  grass  sown  along  with  it  is  be- 
coming rooted.  And  4.  Blue  grass  pastures  may  be 
greatly  strengthened  by  spreading  over  them  farmyard 
manure,  fresh  or  -at  any  stage  in  its  decay.  The  man- 
nure  may  be  applied  at  any  season  of  the  year.  But 


106  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

tlie  best  results  probably  are  secured  by  spreading  it  in 
the  fall  and  also  in  the  early  winter.  It  then  acts  as  a 
protecting  mulch,  and  since  the  soluble  portions  wr'h 
down  into  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  are  taken  up  by 
the  grass  roots,  the  result  is  a  free  and  abundant  growth 
of  grass.  Nor  does  the  manure  when  thus  applied  affect 
injuriously  the  palatability  of  the  grass.  This  it  does 
to  some  extent,  if  applied  after  the  grass  has  made  much 
growth  in  the  spring. 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  seldom  applied  to  blue 
grass  pastures  and  chiefly  for  the  reason  that  they  can- 
not be  spared  for  such  a  use.  In  other  words,  it  is  con- 
sidered more  necessary  to  use  them  for  other  crops.  But 
should  the  circumstances  justify  the  application,  the 
growth  of  the  grass  may  be  much  stimulated  by  their  use. 
The  needs  of  the  soil  should  determine  the  fertilizer  to  be 
used.  Usually  nitrogen  may  be  applied  with  advantage 
in  the  spring  after  growth  has  begun.  One  or  two  dress- 
ings may  be  given  as  necessary,  with  an  interval  of  sev- 
eral weeks  between  them.  On  nearly  all  soils  blue  grass 
will  be  benefited  by  dressing  it  with  phosphates  fall  and 
spring,  and  the  same  is  true  of  dressings  of  potash.  The 
increased  growth,  from  dressing  with  wood  ashes  is  also 
marked. 

Blue  grass  will,  on  certain  soils,  come  into  the  mead- 
ows and  pastures  to  the  extent  of  finally  crowding  out 
the  grasses  composing  them,  without  having  been  sown 
in  the  same,  unless  by  the  hand  of  nature.  This  it  will 
do  under  all  or  nearly  all  conditions  quite  favorable  to 
its  growth.  For  instance,  where  timothy  and  clover  are 
sown  and  cut  for  two  or  three  successive  seasons  for 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS.  Io7 

meadow,  tliis  grass  is  pretty  certain  to  appear  more  or 
less  the  second  year,  and  if  grazing  follows  in  subsequent 
years  it  will  not  be  very  long  till  the  pasture  is  one  of 
blue  grass.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  many  of 
the  seeds  of  this  grass  are  lying  in  such  soils  in  a  dor- 
mant state,  and  ready  to  grow  when  the  conditions  favor 
such  growth. 

It  is  possible  also  to  so  transform  the  grasses  of  the 
prairie  without  ploughing  them  that  they  will  ultimately 
become  essentially  blue  grass  pastures.  This  may  be 
done  by  scattering  seed  over  them,  not  necessarily  in 
large  quantities  at  one  time,  in  the  autumn  or  early 
spring.  The  best  time  probably  for  sowing  such  seed 
is  just  after  it  has  been  gathered.  Especially  is  this 
true  of  areas  in  which  the  summer  climate  is  dry,  as 
for  instance,  the  bench  lands  of  Rocky  mountain  areas. 
The  seed  thus  used  may  be  sown  quite  as  well  in  the 
chaff  as  in  the  cleaned  form.  In  due  time  some  of  the 
plants  will  grow.  If  only  a  part  of  them  are  allowed 
to  mature  their  seeds,  as  when  the  grazing  is  not  too 
close,  these  fall  down  and  are  scattered  more  or  less  and 
produce  fresh  plants.  The  transforming  process  is 
hastened  by  the  increase  of  plants  through  the  root- 
stalks  pushed  out  from  the  growing  plants.  It  may  be 
still  further  hastened  by  adding  more  seed  the  second 
autumn  or  the  third.  The  advantage  from  sowing  the 
seed  in  small  quantities  at  one  time  and  repeating  the 
sowing  another  season  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  risk  of 
losing  all  or  nearly  all  the  seed  is  lessened,  should  it  all 
be  sown  at  one  time,  and  a  very  dry  season  follow.  When 
the  seed  is  sown  thus  it  would  not  seem  necessary  to 


108  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

scatter  more  than  three  or  four  pounds  pur  acre  at. 
one  time.  The  period  required  to  transform  pasture 
thus  will  of  course  vary  greatly,  but  the  transforming 
work  is  usually  done  in  a  few  years.  There  are,  how- 
ever, localities  which  include  wide  areas,  as  on  certain 
of  the  ranges,  especially  those  of  the  south  and  west, 
where  such  transformation  cannot  be  made,  owing  to 
the  aridity  of  the  conditions. 

When  blue  grass  is  newly  introduced  into  any  locality 
it  may  be  established  readily  in  by-places  with  but  little 
expense,  if  the  seed  grown  even  on  limited  areas  is 
saved  by  means  of  a  hand  stripper  and  scattered  over 
these  as  soon  as  it  has  been  secured.  Seed  thus  sown 
has  strong  germinating  power. 

On  certain  soils  that  are  springy  in  character,  blue 
grass  will  come  in  and  take  possession,  when  the  forest 
is  cut  away.  These  soils  are  usually  composed  of  muck 
and  more  commonly  they  are  located  at  the  base  of  a 
hill,  or  lie  between  land  that  on  either  side  is  more  or 
less  elevated.  Seepage  waters  come  into  these 
depressions,  of  course,  from  subterranean  sources,  and 
rising  from  below  saturate  them  to  excess  at  certain  sea- 
sons of  the  year.  At  other  seasons  they  can  be  grazed. 
Partly  through  the  action  of  frost  and  partly  because  of 
treading  .by  animals  grazing  on  them,  these  lands  as- 
sume the  form  of  innumerable  hillocks  resembling  ant 
hills.  ^These  lands  usually  furnish  a  large  amount  of 
grazing.  If,  however,  the  seepage  waters  coming  down 
from  the  higher  land  were  sufficiently  intercepted  by  a 
drain  or  drains  skirting  the  same  at  the  base,  and  run- 
ning parallel  to  them,  the  capacity  of  such  grazing  lands 


KENTUCKY  BLUE  GRASS.  109 

would  be  irmcli  increased.  The  surface  would  also 
gradually  assume  a  level  form. 

Blue  Grass  in  Lawns. — Wherever  Kentucky  blue 
grass  can  be  grown  successfully  it  is  a  favorite  grass  for 
lawns.  The  dense,  fine,  almost  velvety  sward  it  make?? 
pre-eminently  fits  it  for  such  a  use.  Its  crowding  habit 
of  growth  enables  it  to  keep  at  bay  almost  all  forms  of 
weed  life  when  it  has  once  become  set;  that  is  to  say, 
well  established.  Cessation  of  growth  and  turning 
brown  for  a  time  in  summer  when  unirrigated,  are  the 
weakest  points  in  this  grass  as  a  lawn  grass. 

In  making  lawns  on  the  farm  the  ground  should  be 
first  cleaned  on  the  surface,  as  by  summer  fallowing  for 
the  whole  or  even  for  a  part  of  the  season.  It  should 
then  be  well-levelled.  The  seed  ought  then  to  be  sown, 
preferably  in  the  early  autumn  and  covered  with  a  rake 
or  a  light  harrow.  It  may  be  sown  unmixed  or  mixed 
with  white  clover,  and  with  or  without  a  nurse  crop  of 
grain  sown  thinly,  according  as  conditions  may  call  for 
the  same. .  The  nurse  crop  and  weeds  if  present  should 
be  cut  back  occasionally  the  first  season.  If  the  farm 
house  lawn  can  be  cut  with  the  field  mower  much  labor  is 
saved  in  keeping  it  in  order. 

In  making  blue  grass  lawns  in  cities  substantially  the 
same  process  may  be  followed,  with  the  difference  that 
these  being  small  it  may  be  necessary  to  do  much  of  the 
labor  by  hand,  and  the  seed  may  be  sown  any  time 
between  spring  and  early  fall  when  the  ground  can  be 
watered.  It  is  important  with  all  lawns  that  the  earth 
shall  all  have  evenly  settled  before  the  seed  is  sown,  and 
it  should  be  thickly  sown  to  promote  quick  setting.^ 


110  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

When  a  blue  grass  lawn  is  well  established  under 
suitable  conditions  and  with  ordinary  care,  it  is  there 
to  remain.  If  a  more  vigorous  growth  is  wanted  it  may 
be  secured  by  top  dressing  with  farmyard  manure  or 
with  compost  well  decomposed  and  preferably  applied 
in  the  autumn.  In  some  instances  the  dressing  should 
be  raked  off  in  the  spring.  Wood  ashes  and  commercial 
fertilizers  may  also  be  applied,  but  these  do  not  afford 
winter  protection  as  does  the  manure  or  the  compost.  If 
commercial  fertilizers  are  applied,  those  nitrogenous  in 
character  are  to  be  preferred. 


CHAPTEE  V. 

BERMUDA    GRASS. 

Bermuda  grass  (Cynodon  dactylon)  is  also  known  by 
the  names  Dog's  Tooth  grass,  Scutch  grass,  Wire  grass, 
Reed's  grass,  Bahama  grass,  and  Indian  Couch  grass.  In 
Australia  it  is  called  Couch  grass  and  in  India  Darva 
grass.  The  name  Dog's  Tooth  grass  is  a  literal  rendering 
of  Cynodon,  the  first  word  of  the  botanical  designation. 
The  name  Bermuda  grass  has  doubtless  been  applied  to 
it  from  the  abundant  growth  which  it  makes  in  the  Ber- 
muda islands,  although  it  did  not  originate  in  these.  Dr. 
Phares  says  it  is  the  same  as  Creeping  Dog's  Tooth  grass 
in  England,  Chiendent  in  France,  and  Doob  or  Durva  in 
the  East  Indies.  Some  writers  claim  that  it  is  the  Sa- 
cred Durva  grass  of  the  Hindoos,  celebrated  in  the  sa- 
cred vedas  as  the  shield  of  India,  in  the  absence  of  which 
the  cattle  would  perish,  but  the  evidence  in  support  of 
this  view  is  not  regarded  as  entirely  satisfactory. 

Bermuda  grass  is  a  creeping  perennial,  the  creeping 
stems  of  which  produce  nodes  or  joints  at  short  intervals. 
Each  node  is  capable  of  producing  a  new  plant,  though 
completely  separated  from  all  the  others.  These  stems 
have  been  known  to  extend  12  to  15  feet  in  a  single  sea- 
son under  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  growth. 
When  the  joints  come  in  contact  with  the  earth,  they 
send  down  fibrous  roots  into  the  soil  as  do  the  run- 


112  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

ners  of  white  clover.  It  also  produces  -underground 
stems  near  the  surface  to  the  depth  of  4  to  5  inches  and 
extending  outward  several  feet.  From  the  overground 
creeping  stems  are  numerous  ascending  or  upright  leafy 
branches  from  4  to  10  inches  in  height.  Other  grasses  of 
like  appearance  have  only  a  single  leaf  to  each  joint, 
while  this  grass  has  two,  three,  and  even  four  leaves  to 
the  joint.  From  3  to  5  digitate  spikes  are  borne  on  each 
stem  at  the  top  when  it  blooms.  These  are  widely 
spreading,  often  purplish  in  color  and  1  to  2  inches 
long.  The  leaves  are  flat,  also  spread  widely  and  grad- 
ually taper  to  a  slender  acute  tip.  The  roots,  other  than 
the  underground  root-stalks,  are  fibrous  and  feed  deeply, 
but  the  usual  depth  for  ploughing  is  deeper  than  the 
root-stalks  are  wont  to  go. 

This  grass,  much  written  and  spoken  against,  and 
much  feared  by  many  planters  because  of  the  difficulty 
of  eradicating  it  in  cultivated  land,  is  steadily  growing 
in  favor  in  the  south,  and  justly  so,  owing  chiefly 
to  its  great  value  as  a  pasture  grass  under  southern  con- 
ditions. Lands  well  laid  down  to  Bermuda  grass  are  in 
many  instances  considered  the  most  valuable  property 
of  the  southern  farmer.  It  is  strictly  a  summer  grass, 
as  it  grows  best  when  the  heat  is  greatest,  the  other 
conditions  being  right.  It  starts  late  in  the  spring,  grows 
slowly  at  first  and  turns  brown  with  the  earliest  frosts 
of  autumn,  but  it  grows  right  on  through  the  whole  of 
the  summer.  While  it  grows  best  in  good  soils,  no  grass 
in  the  south  will  furnish  so  much  valuable  pasture  when 
grown  on  poor  sandy,  gullied  or  worn  soils.  It  has  much 
power  to  withstand  heat  and  drought.  Though  ap- 


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BERMUDA  GRASS.  115 

parently  dead  from  drought  it  will  quickly  revive  when 
moisture  comes.  It  will  also  withstand  inundations 
better  probably  than  any  other  valuable  grass  grown  in 
the  south.  But  it  does  not  succeed  well  in  the  shade, 
hence  it  is  not  well  adapted  for  being  grown  in  groves 
and  while  it  is  becoming  "set"  it  must  be  protected 
against  brome  grass  and  briers.  It  will  not  grow  in  cold 
or  even  cool  weather,  nor  can  it  live  in  a  soil  deeply 
penetrated  by  frost.  Under  favorable  conditions  it  cov- 
ers the  soil  so  densely  as  to  exercise  a  salutary  and  con- 
siderable influence  on  the  retention  of  moisture,  and  it 
is  also  favorable  to  the  action  of  earthworms,  so  helpful 
to  soil  improvement. 

This  grass  is  beyond  question  the  most  valuable  pas- 
ture grass  in  the  south.  It  will  furnish  grazing  on  soils 
too  poor  to  grow  cultivated  crops,  will  furnish  more 
and  better  grazing  than  any  other  southern  grass  and 
will  also  stand  closer  grazing  and  more  tramping  under 
all  conditions  than  any  other.  All  kinds  of  live  stock 
kept  upon  the  southern  farm  are  fond  of  it,  at  all  stages 
of  development  until  smitten  by  frost.  It  also  makes 
excellent  and  valuable  hay,  more  palatable  and  nutri- 
tious than  that  made  from  blue  grass. 

Bermuda  grass  also  renders  excellent  service  in  pre- 
venting erosion  in  soils  and  in  binding  the  same.  It 
will  hold  together  the  most  arid  and  loose  sands  when 
once  set  in  them.  It  has  no  superior  in  forming  a  sod 
on  ditch  banks  and  ravines.  It  is  specially  helpful  in 
filling  up  gullies  little  by  little,  since  it  grows  up 
through  the  deposit  of  soil  which  it  arrests  from  water 
passing  through  it.  It  aids  in  holding  up  steep  banks 


116  GRASSES  AND  H6W  TO  GROW  THEM. 

and  in  preventing  land  slides,  and  nothing  can  surpass 
it  for  sodding  the  levees  of  alluvial  lands.  It  is  also 
used  as  a  lawn  grass  in  the  south  where  blue  grass  will 
not  so  well  serve  the  purpose.  The  chief  objection  to  it 
is  the  brown  shade  which  characterizes  it  during  the  sea- 
son of  frost. 

One  of  the  chief  objections  to  Bermuda  grass  is  the 
difficulty  found  in  eradicating  it  on  good  soils.  Many 
growers  of  this  grass,  however,  affirm  that  they  do  not 
desire  to  completely  eradicate  it  where  it  is  grown  in 
rotation  with  other  crops,  since  the  residue  of  the  grass 
plants  remaining  in  the  soil  after  .other  crops  have  been 
grown  in  the  rotation,  makes  the  re-establishment  of 
this  grass  much  easier  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 

Distribution. — It  is  thought  that  Bermuda  grass  is  a 
native  of  tropical  Asia.  It  is  now  grown  in  n\any  trop- 
ical countries.  It  has  been  grown  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent in  various  areas  of  southern  Asia  widely  distant 
from  one  another.  Howsoever  introduced,  it  has  been 
grown  in  the  southern  states  for  fully  three  quarters  of 
a  century.  Its  growth  there  is  said  to  have  been  first 
noted  by  General  Bethune,  who  gave  considerable  at- 
tention to  its  distribution  in  the  south. 

In  the  United  States  it  is  grown  chiefly  south  of  the 
37th  parallel,  that  is,  south  of  a  line  running  along  or 
near  the  northern  limit  of  the  states  of  North  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  Mexico  and  Arizona, 
including  the  southern  portion  of  California.  It  would 
seem  to  be  grown  in  every  state  south  of  this  line  and 
eastward  from  Texas.  In  these  states  it  is  probably 
destined  to  become  the  best  pasture  grass  grown,  and  in 


BERMUDA  GRASS.  U? 

them  it  is  also  likely  to  be  much  grown  for  hay.  Its 
growth  has  been  much  retarded  in  the  cotton  growing 
states  by  the  trouble  found  in  completely  exterminating 
it  in  soils  much  used  for  growing  cotton  and  corn,  but 
now  that  the  fact  is  becoming  recognized  that  the  lands 
well  set  to  Bermuda  grass  are  yielding  higher  revenues 
than  the  former,  its  growth  is  rapidly  extending.  It  is 
certainly  destined  to  become  the  leading  pasture  grass 
in  all  the  states  south  of  the  parallel  named,  in  areas 
susceptible  of  cultivation. 

Bermuda  grass  has  also  been  grown  with  much  success 
in  Virginia  where  the  farmers  are  laying  down  to  this 
grass  considerable  areas  that  were  formerly  devoted  to 
wheat  culture.  In  Southern  Kentucky,  Missouri  and 
Kansas,  it  has  been  introduced  to  some  extent,  but  only 
with  variable  success  because  of  the  cold  in  winter.  Even 
in  some  parts  of  Tennessee  and  Oklahoma,  winter  weath- 
er injures  it.  It  will  succeed  well  in  Southern  Califor- 
nia, and  reasonably  well  in  much  of  that  state,  but  it  is 
not  a  success  in  Oregon.  North  of  the  states  named  this 
grass  would  not  seem  to  have  any  economic  mission  be- 
cause of  low  temperatures.  It  will  live  much  further 
north,  but  does  not  make  sufficient  growth  to  enable  it  to 
compete  with  grasses  better  adapted  to  northern  condi- 
tions. 

Bermuda  grass  has  no  economic  mission  whatever  for 
Canada.  It  is  doubtful  if  it  would  endure  the  cold  win- 
ters in  any  province  of  Canada  except  possibly  in  Brit- 
ish Columbia  and  close  beside  the  Pacific. 

Soils. — Bermuda  grass  will  grow  and  thrive  in  almost 
any  kind  of  soil,  but  of  course  not  equally  well.  It 


118  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

thrives  best  on  rich  soils,  alluvial  in  character,  such  as 
is  found  in  river  bottoms  arid  in  drained  depressions 
into  which  deposit  has  been  washed  from  the  higher 
lands.  It  is  much  better  adapted  to  sandy  lands  than 
to  stiff  clays,  but  in  the  latter  it  will  grow  when  once  it 
gets  a  start.  It  may  be  made  to  cover  any  of  the  soils 
so  depleted  in  fertility  that  their  cultivation  has  been 
abandoned,  providing  other  forms  of  growth,  as  broom 
sedge  and  bushes  are  not  allowed  to  crowd  and  over- 
shadow the  grass  while  it  is  becoming  set.  It  may  be 
made  to  bind  shifting  sands  so  light  that  they  will  blow, 
though  of  course  from  the  shifting  character  of  these  it 
is  not  easy  to  get  the  plants  started.  It  will  also  tolerate 
considerable  alkali  in  the  soil,  insomuch  that  on  soils  too 
alkaline  to  grow  other  grasses,  it  will  yield  some  profit 
grown  as  pasture  and  on  subsoils  laid  bare  through  the 
removal  of  the  top  soils  in  filling  gullies,  it  will  grow, 
providing  they  are  given  a  light  dressing  of  farmyard 
manure.  The  service  that  it  may  be  made  to  render  in 
turning  those  gullied  soils  and  worn  lands  into  profita- 
ble grazing  and  in  preventing  them  from  washing  in  the 
future,  is,  in  the  aggregate,  beyond  all  computation. 
Place  in  the  Rotation. — Strictly  speaking,  Bermuda 
grass  is  not  a  rotation  plant.  Because  of  the  difficulty 
found  in  eradicating  this  grass  and  because  of  its  con- 
tinuity in  growth,  its  highest  use  is  found  in  permanent 
pastures.  But  it  can  be  and  is  used  in  rotations.  For 
instance,  it  may  be  followed  by  corn,  cotton  or  wheat 
or  other  grains,  growing  these  in  some  sort  of  alternation 
for  a  limited  number  of  years.  Those  who  grow  it 
thus  and  who  wish  to  lay  down  these  lands  to  Ber- 


BERMUDA  GRASS.  119 

inuda  grass  again,  are  careful  not  to  carry  the  extermin- 
ating process  too  far  before  this  is  attempted.  The 
roots  remaining  in  the  soil  will  again  produce  Bermuda 
pastures  if  properly  protected.  There  is  the  objection 
to  this  plan,  however,  that  it  does  not  admit  of  what  may 
be  termed  clean  cultivation. 

Because  of  the  increased  crops  that  have  been  ob- 
tained after  breaking  up  lands  on  which  Bermuda  has 
grown  for  several  years,  some  have  concluded  that  it  is 
a  soil  enricher.  This,  however,  is  not  correct  in  the 
sense  intended.  If  pastured  or  mown  for  successive 
years,  the  land  meanwhile  receiving  no  dressing  of  ferti- 
lizer, in  any  form,  as  with  timothy  in  the  north,  the  fer- 
tility content  would  be  lessened  in  its  entirety.  The 
better  crops  which  follow  this  grass  are  due,  therefore, 
to  the  much  humus  put  into  the  soil  by  the  grass,  in 
other  words,  to  the  mechanical  and  chemical  influence 
which  it  exerts  on  the  soil  in  its  decay,  and  to  the  fer- 
tility which  is  thus  made  more  readily  available. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — When  land  is  to  be  laid  down 
to  Bermuda  grass,  the  cleaner  and  richer  it  is,  and  the 
better  its  mechanical  condition,  the  sooner  will  a  stand 
of  the  grass  be  secured,  and  the  greater  will  be  the  re- 
turns from  it.  When  planting  it  on  cultivated  land, 
therefore,  any  attention  that  is  judiciously  given  to  the 
cleaning  of  the  land  will  be  time  well  spent.  The  con- 
ditions for  planting  after  a  well  cared  for  corn,  cotton  or 
tobacco  crop,  are  very  suitable. 

For  spring  planting  the  preparation  that  is  given  to 
making  the  land  ready  for  a  corn  crop  is  deemed  suita- 


120  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

ble  also  for  planting  Bermuda  grass,  but  such  prepara- 
tion should  be  made  early  in  the  season. 

When  the  crop  "is  planted  on  rough  land  possessed 
with  sassafras  and  broom  sage,  the  only  preparation 
given  is  to  remove  these  for  a  time  by  cutting  and  this 
may  be  absolutely  necessary  even  when  judicious  grazing 
is  possible.  The  same  is  also  true  of  stony  and  rough 
land. .  Poor  land  that  has  been  gullied  is  prepared  by 
ploughing,  which  should  be  deep  rather  than  shallow, 
by  filling  the  gullies  with  the  scraper  and  applying  a  thin 
coating  of  farmyard  manure  when  the  top  soil  has  been 
removed  before  planting  the  grass. 

Sowing  or  Planting. — As  the  seed  of  Bermuda  grass 
is  low  in  germinating  power  and  as  the  price  is  high, 
running  all  the  way  from,  say  50  cents  to  $1.00  per 
pound,  it  is  not  much  sown  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
not  only  low  in  germinating  power,  but  the  young 
plants  from  the  seed  grow  so  slowly  that  they  are 
much  liable  to  injury  from  the  crowding  of  weeds, 
unless  well  cared  for.  The  plan,  therefore,  of  plant- 
ing portions  of  the  roots  has  come  to  be  generally 
adopted. 

Nevertheless  it  may  be  advisable  to  sow  seed  on  a 
limited  area,  in  order  to  get  a  stand  of  plants  to  be 
used  as  cuttings  in  laying  down  pastures.  It  should  be 
sowed  only  on  clean  and  good  land  and  while  the  same  is 
moist.  It  is  recommended  to  sow  the  seed  broadcast  and 
to  cover  it  with  a  rake.  A  pound  of  seed  should  sow 
one-fifth  to  one-third  of  an  acre.  Weeds  must  be  kept 
away  from  the  young  plants  until  they  attain  some  con- 
siderable size.  The  method  of  sowing  the  seed  in  drills 


BERMUDA  GRASS.  121 

would  doubtless  be  preferable.  It  would  call  for  less 
seed  and  would  make  it  practicable  to  keep  the  land 
clear  Avith  considerably  less  labor.  Lawns  may  be  thus 
seeded  where  Bermuda  cuttings  or  sods  cannot  be  ob- 
tained. 

The  following  are  chief  among  the  methods  com- 
monly adopted  in  planting  the  grass : 

1.  Portions   of  sod  are   obtained   and   are  cut  into 
pieces  about  2  inches  square  with  a  sharp  spade  or  corn 
knife.     Shallow  furrows  are  made  both  ways  in  well 
prepared  land  and  the  pieces  of  sod  carried  in  baskets 
or  otherwise  are  placed  in  the  intersections  of  these. 
The  top  side  of  the  sod  is  kept  upward.     Sometimes 
the  earth  is  adjusted  to  the  pieces  with  a  hoe  or  they 
are  covered  lightly  with  the  plough,  the  land  then  being 
smoothed  with  the  harrow. 

2.  In  the  fall  while  breaking  the  land  with  a  turning 
plough,  drop  small  pieces  of  sod  in  every  third  furrow 
behind  the  plough  1  to  2  feet  distant,  the  next  furrow 
slice  being  made  to  cover  these.     Then  sow  rye  on  the 
land  and  in  the  spring  graze  down  by  cattle  to  aid  in 
removing  the  shade  from  the  crop  and  to  firm  the  land. 
Horses  and  sheep  should  not  be  thus  grazed  while  the 
grass  is  setting,  as  they  bite  off  many  of  the  creeping 
stems  and  thus  interfere  with  the  spread  of  the  grass. 

3.  In  light  furrows  made  between  the  rows  of  corn 
when  ready  to  be  laid  by,  drop  small  pieces  of  the  sod 
1  to  2  feet  apart  and  cover  with  a  small  harrow  or 
plank  leveller,  such  as  may  be  run  between  the  rows  of 
corn. 

4.  The  plants  are  dug  up  and  shaken  free  from  earth 


122  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

and  run  through  a  cutting  box,  the  aim  being  not  to 
make  the  lengths  shorthand  these  are  scattered  over  well 
prepared  land  and  covered  with  the  harrow,  followed  or 
preceded  by  the  roller  as  may  be  advisable  under  the  cir- 
cumstances. It  has  been  recommended  to  sow  it  thus 
with  oats,  but  there  is  the  objection  that  the  shade  from 
the  oats  will  hinder  growth.  If  the  oats  are  cut  for 
hay,  however,  the  injury  thus  resulting  may  not  be  any 
more  than  from  weeds  growing  amid  the  plants. 

5.  In  unprepared  land  on  which  broom  sage  and  sas- 
safras may  be  growing,  pieces  of  sod  drawn  in  a  wagon 
may  be  planted  in  openings  in  the  ground  made  with  a 
hoe,   the  earth  being  adjusted  with  the  foot.      These 
openings  may  run  from  3  to  6  feet  apart  each  way.    The 
closer  they  are  the  more  quickly  will  the  grass  possess 
the  land.     Attention  must  be  given  at  the  same  time  to 
removing  the  shade  of  broom  sage  or  sassafras  if  growing 
there,   by  grazing  or   cutting   down   according  to   the 
season  of  the  year.      This  method  is  adapted  to  the 
planting  of  large  areas  of  run  down  land  when  it  is  de- 
sired to  change  them  into  Bermuda  pastures  at  a  mini- 
mum expenditure  of  labor. 

6.  Small   areas   are  sometimes  planted  by  barefoot 
boys  who  drop  the  pieces  of  sod  into  the  soil  when  soft 
and  push  them  down  into  the  same  with  the  foot. 

Spring  planting  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  danger 
from  frost  is  over  and  may  continue  on  into  the  sum- 
mer, but  early  planting  is  much  to  be  preferred.  When 
planting  in  the  autumn  it  is  necessary  to  cover  more 
deeply  than  when  planting  in  the  spring.  Planting 
when  moisture  is  absent  should  be  avoided,  and  fresh 
plants  or  cuttings  only  should  be  used  In  some  in- 


BERMUDA  GRASS.  123 

stances  cultivation  is  given  to  the  land  for  a  time  be- 
tween the  rows  of  Bermuda  sets  with  a  view  to  clean  the 
same.  In  other  instances  pasturing  with  cattle  has  the 
same  object  in  view,  and  in  yet  other  instances  the  crab 
grass  which  grows  on  the  land  is  cut  for  hay. 

A  real  difficulty  is  frequently  experienced  in  trying  to 
get  Bermuda  grass  to  grow  on  shifting  sands,  from  the 
very  fact  that  they  do  shift.  About  all  that  can  be 
done  probably  to  prevent  this,  is  to  plant  the  grass  at 
those  seasons  when  growth  is  possible  and  when  high 
winds  are  less  likely  to  prevail. 

Pasturing. — Bermuda  grass  is  unquestionably  the 
best  pasture  grass  in  the  south,  viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  palatability,  productiveness  and  endurance. 
There  are  reasons  for  believing  that  in  its  proper  sphere 
it  will  produce  more  grazing  and  more  meat  than  blue 
grass  under  the  most  favored  conditions.  When  well  set 
on  good  land,  it  has  maintained  a  mature  cattle  beast 
to  each  acre  and  produced  more  than  200  pounds  of 
beef  during  six  months  of  grazing.  Sheep  can  graze 
upon  it  from  7  to  9  months  in  the  year  according  to  the 
locality.  One  explanation  of  its  ability  to  produce 
these  results  is  found  in  its  power  to  grow  right  through 
the  summer  months.  The  first  frosts,  however,  injure  it 
for  grazing,  since  they  turn  the  leaves  brown,  and  se- 
vere frosts  northward  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  take 
the  succulence  out  of  the  stems  and  leaves.  Further 
south  the  stems  remain  green  all  winter  and  so  may  be 
made  to  furnish  grazing,  but  the  propriety  of  grazing 
closely  at  that  season  is  somewhat  doubtful,  lest  the 
roots  should  become  too  much  exposed  to  the  frost.  The 


124  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

aim  should  be  rather  to  grow  Texas  blue  grass  or  some 
other  grass  to  provide  winter  grazing. 

With  many  other  grasses  close  grazing  should  be 
avoided  ,  but  Bermuda  should  be  grazed  somewhat  close- 
ly during  the  season  of  growth,  except  when  it  is  becom- 
ing established,  at  which  time  close  grazing  would  hin- 
der the  runners  more  or  less  from  pushing  out  and  form- 
ing new  plants.  It  should  be  thus  grazed  for  the  reason, 
first,  that  it  is  then  more  palatable;  second,  to  prevent 
the  stems  from  becoming  hard  and  wiry  and  so  indigesti- 
ble that  their  nutritive  value  is  much  impaired;  and 
third,  to  keep  down  briers  and  weeds  that  might  other- 
wise injure  it  by  their  shade.  With  this  object  in  view, 
it  has  been  recommended  to  graze  sheep  on  it  early  in 
the  season.  When  grazed  close,  no  other  grass  is  able 
to  dislodge  Bermuda  grass  unless  it  be  carpet  grass 
(Paspalum  platycaule)  found  in  Louisiana  and  other 
parts.  When  the  grazing  does  not  keep  the  grass  down, 
the  plan  of  mowing  it  when  necessary  in  conjunction 
with  the  pasturing  has  frequently  been  advantageously 
adopted.  The  wiry  condition  of  the  stems  when  too  long 
ungrazed  has,  it  is  claimed,  in  some  instances,  led  to  loss 
in  the  animals  grazed  upon  them. 

In  seasons  of  much  drought  the  plants  will,  on  some 
soils,  appear  to  die,  but  when  rain  comes  they  will  re- 
vive again  with  surprising  quickness.  Overflow  during 
the  growing  season  rather  encourages  the  growth  of  this 
grass,  but  for  a  time  it  usually  injures  grazing  by  the 
sediment  deposited  on  it. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Bermuda  grass  should  be  cut 
for  hay  when  the  greatest  number  of  stems  are  in  bloom. 


BERMUDA  GRASS.  127 

Soon  after  they  have  reached  that  stage  the  upper  por- 
tion dies  and  the  leaves  below  fall  off.  The  tedder 
should  follow  when  necessary  as  soon  as  the  crop  is 
wilted,  to  secure  evenness  in  the  curing  of  a  grass  so 
fine,  and  as  soon  as  ready,  frequently  the  same  day  that 
it  is  mowed,  it  should  he  put  up  into  cocks  and  remain 
in  these  until  cured.  In  handling  the  hay,  a  fork  with 
many  tines  should  be  used,  because  of  the  fineness  of 
the  hay. 

The  number  of  cuttings  in  the  season  will  depend 
upon  the  soil  and  weather.  These  run  all  the  way  from 
1  to  5  and  the  yields  also  vary  accordingly.  They  run 
all  the  way  from  half  a  ton  to  2  tons  per  cutting.  The 
hay  per  season  ordinarily  runs  from  1  to  5  tons.  By 
using  nitrate  of  soda  10  tons  have  been  reaped  and  in 
one  instance  recorded  as  many  as  13  tons  per  acre  were 
reaped  in  one  year.  The  more  frequent  the  cuttings,  the 
cleaner  is  the  hay  likely  to  be. 

Securing  Seed. — Bermuda  grass  produces  little  or  no 
seeds  in  the  southern  states,  hence  nothing  can  be  said  in 
the  meantime  about  growing  it  for  seed  in  the  same. 
The  seed  in  the  market  is  grown  in  a  still  warmer  cli- 
mate than  that  of  the  southern  states.  Since  the  grass 
will  soon  be  grown  in  so  many  centers  that.it  will  not  be 
difficult  to  obtain  portions  of  the  sod  for  planting,  the 
question  of  seed  production  would  not  seem  to  be  one 
of  great  importance  in  the  United  States.  In  view  of 
the  fact  that  a  stand  of  the  grass  can  be  more  quickly 
obtained  from  root  cuttings  than  from  seed,  and  of 
the  further  fact  that  on  some  soils  some  difficulty  at- 
tends its  eradication,  it  would  seem  to  be  on  the  whole 


128  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

fortunate  for  southern  agriculture  that  the  plants  do 
not  bear  seed  freely. 

Renewing. — Bermuda  grass,  like  quack  grass,  be- 
comes sod  bound  after  a  few  seasons  of  pasturing  or 
mowing,  hence  where  practicable  it  is  recommended  to 
break  it  up  by  ploughing  and  smoothing  the  ground 
quite  soon  thereafter  with  the  harrow ;  ploughing  it  thus 
loosens  and  aerates  the  soil,  breaks  up  the  matted  roots 
and  brings  new  life  to  the  plants.  The  frequency  with 
which  this  ought  to  be  done,  the  best  season  for  doing  it, 
and  the  exact  mode  of  doing  the  work  will  depend  upon 
conditions  such  as  relate  to  climate,  soil  and  the  dense- 
iiess  of  the  sod.  Usually  it  is  recommended  thus  to 
break  up  the  sod  with  the  plough  every  4  or  5  years. 
Northward  the  work  should  not  be  undertaken  just  on 
the  approach  of  winter,  lest  too  many  of  the  plants 
should  perish.  Far  south  it  might  be  desirable  to  have 
many  of  them  perish  to  thin  them.  The  depth  of  the 
ploughing  should  be  gauged  by  the  character  of  the  soil, 
but  it  ought  always  to  be  as  deep  as  experience  has 
demonstrated  that  it  can  be  done  with  safety  to  the 
plants.  The  more  dense  the  sod,  the  less  the  danger  of 
destroying  too  many  of  the  plants  by  deep  ploughing 
and  harsh  treatment. 

But  even  under  conditions  where  Bermuda  grass 
cannot  be  thus  dealt  with,  it  will  continue  to  produce 
well  for  many  years,  as  has  been  demonstrated  on  free 
grazing  lands  in  proximity  to  the  cities. 

The  renewal  of  this  grass  is  sometimes  effected  by 
ploughing  the  land  in  September  or  October  and  sow- 
ing it  with  red  clover,  winter  oats  or  the  sand  vetch 


BERMUDA  GRASS.  129 

(Vicia  villosa).  These  are  grazed  when  ready,  but  in 
some  instances  the  clover  is  cut  for  hay,  the  Bermuda 
grass  furnishing  grazing  later  in  the  season. 

The  grass  may  also  be  renewed  in  a  sense  by  either 
of  the  following  methods:  1.  Apply  such  commercial 
fertilizers  as  the  circumstances  may  call  for.  2.  Fatten 
cattle  on  the  pastures,  and  feed  to  these  more  or  less  of 
such  food  as  corn,  cotton  seed  meal  or  oilcake  while  being 
thus  grazed.  3.  Fatten  sheep  or  lambs  on  the  same,  fed 
liberally  with  grain  or  oilcake  or  with  both. 

Eradicating. — At  one  time  this  grass  was  the  dread 
of  the  planters  or  of  many  of  them  because  of  the  per- 
sistence with  which  it  grows  on  good  soils  subjected  to 
cultivation.  At  the  present  time  some  persons  who 
grow  it  in  the  rotation  do  not  try  to  completely  eradi- 
cate it.  They  believe  that  the  extra  cultivation  re- 
quired to  keep  it  in  check  in  cultivated  crops  is  more 
than  compensated  by  its  influence  in  binding  soils  and 
in  other  respects  benefiting  them.  When  Bermuda  is 
wanted  again,  enough  plants  remain  in  the  soil  to  quick- 
ly form  a  sod.  The  fact  remains,  however,  that  clean 
cultivation  is  preferable  to  that  which  is  partially  clean, 
hence  it  is  well  to  be  able  to  eradicate  the  grass  should 
this  be  desired.  When  such  eradication  is  attempted, 
climate,  soil  and  season  materially  influence  the  meth- 
ods to  be  adopted,  and  also  the  results.  It  is  much  more 
easily  eradicated  when  the  winters  are  cold,  in  soils 
that  are  low  in  fertility  and  in  summers  that  are  dry. 

The  following  methods  of  eradicating  this  grass  will 
prove  more  or  less  successful:    1.  Plough  on  the  near 
approach  of  winter  and  expose  the  roots.     Then  grow 
Grasses — 9. 


130  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

two  crops  of  corn  or  one  of  corn  and  one  of  cotton,  to 
which  thorough  cultivation  is  given.  2.  Sow  oats  and 
sand  vetches  together,  or  clover,  in  the  autumn,  and  cut 
the  same  for  hay.  Follow  with  cow  peas  for  hay  and 
then  grow  two  cultivated  crops  successively  on  the  land. 
3.  Plough  shallow  in  June,  turning  the  furrows  edge- 
wise rather  than  over.  Later  with  a  rotary  or  some 
other  harrow,  free  the  roots  as  far  as  practicable  from 
the  earth.  Sow  cow  peas.  Follow  with  oats  and  vetches, 
cow  peas  again,  and  then  corn  or  cotton.  4.  In  small 
areas  swine  will  virtually  dig  out  this  grass. 

Some  persons  claim  that  hecause  of  the  difficulty 
found  in  eradicating  this  grass,  it  should  never  be  sown 
on  land  that  is  to  he  again  cultivated.  The  author  does 
not  sympathize  with  that  view,  as,  unlike  Johnson  grass, 
it  can  be  eradicated  without  great  cost.  But  the  indo- 
lent farmer  should  never  allow  it  to  come  into  his 
cultivated  ground. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ORCHARD  GRASS. 

Orchard  grass  (Dactylus  glomeraia)  is  also  known 
by  the  name  of  Cocksfoot,  a  name  frequently  applied  to 
it  in  England  from  the  fanciful  resemblance  of  the  clus- 
ters of  the  panicle  to  the  foot  of  a  cockerel.  The  stem 
is  strong  and  inclines  somewhat  to  coarseness,  unless 
when  the  plants  grow  thickly.  It  usually  grows  from 
2  to  2^  feet  high,  but  under  favorable  conditions  may 
reach  from  4  to  5  feet  in  height.  The  leaves  are  large, 
long  and  numerous.  The  panicle  is  open  and  spreading 
and  from  2  to  6  inches  in  length.  The  leaves  are  a  dark 
green  in  color,  but  the  panicle  is  frequently  tinged  with 
violet  spikelets.  The  roots  are  fibrous,  the  fibres  going 
down  deeply  into  the  soil,  which  gives  it  considerable 
power  to  withstand  drought.  On  good  soil  and  suitable, 
the  plants  have  the  appearance  of  much  strength  and 
vigor. 

Orchard  grass  is  an  annual.  It  is  ready  for  pasturing 
earlier  in  the  spring  probably  than  any  other  grass  of 
much  economic  importance  in  the  United  States,  ex- 
cept Russian  brome  grass.  It  comes  into  flower  in 
May  or  June  according  to  the  locality,  and  then  quickly 
reaches  the  mature  stage.  It  continues  to  grow  with 
more  or  less  vigor  during  much  of  the  summer,  and 
again  makes  an  abundant  growth  in  the  autumn  as  soon 


132  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

as  the  autumn  rains  fall.  The  rapidity  of  the  growth 
during  spring  and  fall  is  very  marked  on  favorable  soils, 
hence  the  abundance  of  the  production  furnished  by 
this  grass.  It  is  reasonably  hardy,  but  will  not  with- 
stand exposure  to  extreme  conditions  as  well  as  blue 
grass  or  Russian  brome  grass. 

Orchard  grass  has  the  habit  of  growing  in  bunches  or 
tussocks  unless  thickly  sown,  hence  the  aim  should  be 
to  sow  it  so  thickly  as  to  prevent  this  when  it  is  grown 
for  pasture,  otherwise  it  ought  to  be  grazed  so  closely 
that  these  tussocks  will  not  overshadow  other  grasses  that 
may  be  growing  between  them  to  the  extent  of  destroy- 
ing these  grasses.  It  has  also  much  power  to  grow  in 
the  shade,  as  in  orchards  or  parks.  In  New  England 
especially,  the  practice  has  been  quite  common  to  sow  it 
in  orchards,  hence,  probably,  the  name  orchard  grass. 

It  is  an  excellent  pasture  grass  when  properly  man- 
aged, but  is  not  so  nutritious  or  palatable  as  blue  grass, 
although  it  furnishes  more  grazing  during  the  season 
and  also  ranks  high  for  its  nutritive  qualities.  For  per- 
manent pastures  it  is  possessed  of  a  high  value.  Owing  to 
its  peculiar  habit  of  growing  in  tussocks  and  also  be- 
cause of  the  coarseness  of  the  leaves,  it  is  not  well  adapt- 
ed to  the  making  of  lawns. 

It  makes  good  hay  when  cut  and  cured  at  the  right 
time,  but  it  has  never  become  so  generally  popular  for 
such  a  use  as  timothy,  either  on  the  farm  or  in  the  mar- 
ket. This  is  owing,  doubtless,  to  the  quickness  with 
which  the  stems  become  woody  if  not  cut  at  the  right 
time,  to  its  being  more  difficult  to  cure,  to  the  less  de- 
gree of  its  palatability  and  to  its  greater  bulkiness. 


FIG.  6. 
ORCHARD  GRASS  (Dactylis  glomerata}. 

Oregon  Experiment  Station. 


ORCHARD  GRASS.  135 

Orchard  grass  is  very  enduring  under  favorable  con- 
ditions. Meadows  composed  of  this  grass  have  been 
mown  for  a  dozen  years  and  more.  Instances  are  on 
record  wherein  pastures  of  orchard  grass  have  endured 
for  40  years.  But  ordinarily  it  does  not  maintain  its. 
hold  upon  the  ground  unimpaired  for  periods  so  long. 

Distribution. — Orchard  grass  is  indigenous  to  Eu- 
rope, and  is  probably  grown  in  every  country  of  the 
same.  It  is  also  grown  in  Northern  Africa,  certain 
parts  of  Asia  and  in  many  parts  of  North  America.  It 
is  said  that  it  was  introduced  into  England  from  Vir- 
ginia in  1764.  In  Britain  it  soon  became  greatly  pop- 
ular especially  for  pasture  purposes. 

Orchard  grass  is  best  adapted  to  a  temperate  climate 
in  which  the  extremes  of  cold  are  not  excessive.  It  can- 
not be  grown  as  far  north  as  blue  grass  or  Russian 
brome  grass,  but  is  successfully  grown  further  south 
than  either  of  these  grasses.  Nor  can  it  so  well  with- 
stand the  sweep  of  cold  winds  in  unsheltered  places, 
especially  on  western  prairies.  Like  nearly  all  the  cul- 
tivated grasses  it  grows  more  successfully  under  moist 
than  under  dry  conditions,  and  yet  it  has  considerable 
power  to  grow  under  conditions  somewhat  dry  when 
once  established.  In  Central  and  Western  Kansas,  for 
instance,  it  will  stand  more  drought  than  blue  grass. 

In  the  United  States  orchard  grass  grows  with  no 
little  satisfaction  on  suitable  soils  in  nearly  all  the  coun- 
try east  of  the  dry  belt,  that  is  to  say,  east  of  a  line 
running  from  north  to  south,  say  300  to  400  miles 
west  of  the  Mississippi  river.  The  exceptions  are  the 
wind  swept  areas  of  northwestern  prairies,  the  light 


136  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

sandy  soils  of  the  Lake  Superior  region  and  the  soils 
of  the  southern  states  that  have  been  much  worn.  It 
should  prove  satisfactory  in  such  areas  of  the  lower  Mis- 
sissippi basin  as  contain  alluvial  soils  and  more  particu- 
larly those  that  are  considerably  impregnated  with  clay. 
The  highest  centres  of  adaptation  are  probably  found 
in  the  states  of  Indiana,  Pennsylvania,  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee.  In  New  York  and  the  New  England  states 
it  has  long  stood  high  in  favor  with  the  farmers,  also 
in  certain  parts  of  Ohio,  Virginia,  Kansas  and  some 
other  states..  It  grows  well  on  the  moist  foothills  of 
the  western  mountain  states  and  even  in  some  of  the 
higher  valleys,  and  without  irrigation.  Prof.  H.  T. 
French  has  spoken  well  of  its  merits  as  a  pasture  grass 
in  certain  parts  of  Idaho.  West  of  the  Cascade  moun- 
tains, except  on  gravelly  soils,  it  grows  with  much  lux- 
uriance north  of  San  Francisco.  The  western  ranges 
are  probably  the  lowest  in  adaptation  for  orchard  grass 
of  all  the  areas  in  the  United  States. 

In  Canada,  the  highest  adaptation  for  orchard  grass 
is  found  in  the  deep  loam  soils  of  Western  Ontario,  but 
even  in  these  it  is  not  likely  to  supersede  blue  grass  for 
pasture  or  timothy  for  hay.  In  Quebec  and  in  all  the 
maritime  provinces  of  Canada  it  grows  satisfactorily,  the 
soils  being  right,  and  along  the  Pacific  it  is  quite  at 
home  as  far  north  as  Alaska.  But  it  is  not  likely  that 
it  will  ever  prove  a  decided  success  on  the  prairies  be- 
tween the  Rocky  mountains  and  Lake  Superior. 

Soils. — Orchard  grass  grows  best  in  deep,  rich,  moist 
clay  loam  soils,  possessed  of  a  sufficiency  of  lime,  but 
it  will  also  do  well  on  sandy  loam  soils  which  rest  on 


ORCHARD  GRASS.  137 

clay  somewhat  dense  in  texture.  Even  on  clays  some- 
what stiff  it  will  give  reasonably  good  returns  as  hay  or 
as  pasture.  In  fact  this  grass  will  do  well  on  almost 
any  kind  of  soil  that  is  rich,  well  drained  and  porous. 
On  the  average  prairie  soils  of  the  Mississippi  basin  it 
groAvs  freely,  but  in  the  northern  portions  of  the  same 
which  are  much  exposed  to  the  sweep  of  winds  in  win- 
ter, it  docs  not  endure  well.  Other  soils  of  the  prairie 
are  so  rich  as  to  produce  a  coarseness  of  leaf  and  stem 
that  are  not  desirable,  but  this  may  be  counteracted  to 
some  extent  by  thick  sowing.  While  orchard  grass  has 
high  adaptation  for  moist  soils,  it  will  fail  under  con- 
ditions of  excessive  wetness  or  dryness  in  the  land, 
hence  it  is  ill-adapted  to  undrained  sloughs  or  to  sandy 
soils  deficient  in  moisture.  In  the  gray  soils  of  the 
Rocky  mountain  valleys  it  grows  luxuriantly  under  ir- 
rigation. Where  the  other  conditions  are  suitable  and 
the  soil  is  low  in  fertility,  this  grass  will  readily  respond 
to  the  free  application  of  fertilizers. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Since  orchard  grass,  like 
blue  grass,  is  relatively  better  adapted  for  pasture  than 
for  hay,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  assign  it  a  place  in  a 
fixed  rotation.  When  grown  for  hay  or  for  the  seed, 
the  length  of  the  rotation  will  depend  upon  the  contin- 
uance of  the  profitable  productiveness  of  the  grass.  This 
varies  much  in  different  localities,  but,  usually,  the 
tendency  in  the  grass  to  improve  for  several  years  after 
it  has  been  sown,  has  led  to  the  practice  of  maintaining 
orchard  grass  meadows  and  pastures  for  several  suc- 
cessive years.  When  grown  with  red  clover  for  hay, 
the  rotation  will  be  shortened  or  lengthened  accordingly 


138  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

as  the  sod  is  broken  when  the  red  clover  ceases  to  pro- 
duce abundantly,  or  at  a  later  period.  When  grown  for 
pasture  and  more  especially  in  permanent  pastures,  the 
duration  of  tho  rotation  will  of  course  be  largely  depend- 
ent upon  the  duration  of  the  pasturing  period. 

It  is  evident,  Therefore,  that  orchard  grass  is  not  well 
adapted  to  short  or  to  regularly  fixed  rotations.  When 
sown,  however,  as  in  the  case  of  timothy,  it  may  best 
follow  cultivated  crops  which  have  been  sown  to  clean 
the  land  or  after  summer  fallow  when  summer  fallowing 
is  practiced.  As  with  timothy  also,  it  may  be  best  fol- 
lowed by  corn  or  by  some  small  cereal,  as  oats  or  flax 
which  grow  best  on  soils  supplied  with  vegetable  matter 
in  an  early  stage  of  decay.  Potatoes  also  will  grow  well 
after  this  grass. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — When  orchard  grass  is  sown 
along  with  such  cereals  as  rye,  wheat,  oats  and  barloy, 
the  preparation  of  the  soil  best  suited  to  the  growth  of 
these  crops  will  also  be  the  preparation  suitable  for  or- 
chard grass.  It  is  considered  preferable  to  plough  the 
land  in  the  autumn  in  localities  where  such  a  method 
of  handling  the  land  is  generally  advantageous.  As 
with  other  grass  seeds  a  fine  tilth  is  usually  preferred, 
but  under  some  conditions,  when  sown  in  the  fall,  it 
would  be  possible  to  make  the  seed  bed  too  fine  for  the 
best  results  to  follow.  For  autumn  sowing,  simply  disk- 
ing the  land  on  some  soils  will  suffice.  On  other  soils  it- 
would  be  necessary  to  stir  it  more  deeply  by  using  the 
plough,  and  there  may  be  instances  in  which  the  sub-soil- 
er  may  be  advantageously  used  with  the  plough.  Not- 
withstanding, on  other  occasions,  the  grass  will  grow  if 


ORCHARD  GRASS.  139 

sown  after  harvest  on  stubble  land  and  without  being 
covered  with  the  harrow.  When  sown  in  groves  or  in 
woodland  the  stand  is  much  more  certain  if  the  leaves 
have  been  previously  raked  off  or  burned  where  they 
may  have  been  lodged.  In  such  situations  a  stand  has 
been  secured  even  when  the  young  plants  have  been  pas- 
tured off  from  the  first. 

Sowing. — Orchard  grass  is  more  commonly  sown  in 
the  early  spring,  but  it  may  also  be  sown  at  various 
seasons.  As  with  clover  and  timothy  it  is  sometimes 
sown  on  the  late  spring  snows,  or  on  ground  honey- 
combed with  frost.  But  sowing  is  probably  more  fre- 
quently deferred  until  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  admit 
of  covering  the  seed  with  the  harrow.  In  moist  situa- 
tions it  may  be  sown  almost  any  time  during  the  spring 
when  it  occupies  the  land  alone.  It  has  also  been 
sown  in  the  late  summer  or  the  early  autumn.  But 
it  should  not  be  sown  late  in  the  autumn  lest  the  young 
plants  should  perish  through  the  rigors  of  the  winter 
following. 

Whether  the  seed  should  be  sown  alone  or  with  a 
nurse  crop,  depends  in  part  on  conditions  as  to  moisture 
or  the  opposite,  and  the  quickness  with  which  a  strong 
stand  is  required.  Under  conditions  of  ample  moisture, 
it  is  more  common  to  sow  with  a  nurse  crop,  but  quite 
frequently  the  other  method  of  sowing  is  also  adopted. 
When  it  is,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  weeds  well  clip- 
ped back  lest  they  should  smother  the  young  plants. 
Eye,  barley  and  wheat  in  both  the  winter  and  spring 
varieties  are  the  favorite  nurse  crops,  but  it  is  not  infre- 
quently sown  also  with  oats  seeded  both  autumn  and 


140  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

spring.  When  sown  with  autumn  grains  it  can  usually 
be  sown  earlier  in  the  spring  and  on  a  firmer  seedbed 
than  when  sown  with  the  same  grains  of  the  spring 
varieties,  hence  the  young  plants  can  better  with- 
stand drought,  and  the  shade  of  the  nurse  crop  is  re- 
moved earlier.  When  sown  with  oats  the  oats  should 
be  thinly  sown  and  also  cut  early. 

The  seed  is  more  commonly  sown  by  hand  than  by 
any  other  method,  but  it  is  not  improbable  that  in  some 
soils  the  plan  of  mixing  and  sowing  it  along  with  the 
grain  when  the  latter  is  drilled  in  would  prove  satis- 
factory. Much  care  should  be  taken  to  sow  the  seed 
evenly  to  avoid  any  vacancies  that  will  encourage  the 
forming  of  tussocks. 

When  the  grass  is  sown  alone,  many  urge  sowing  not 
less  than  two  bushels  of  seed  per  acre,  that  is  about  28 
pounds.  But  the  amount  sown  varies  from  2  bushels 
down  to  1  bushel.  When  sown  alone  to  provide  hay, 
not  less,  probably,  than  2  bushels  per  acre  ought  to  be 
sown  to  insure  a  fine  growth  of  stalks  and  leaves,  but, 
when  sown  to  grow  seed,  the  quantity  may  in  some  in- 
stances be  profitably  reduced  to  1  bushel,  lest  the  size 
of  the  seed  heads  should  be  too  much  reduced  by  over- 
crowding. When  sown  along  with  red  clover  to  provide 
meadow,  a  method  of  sowing  which  is  extensively  prac- 
ticed and  which  meets  with  much  favor,  some  authorities 
advocate  adding  as  much  as  12  pounds  of  red  clover 
seed  per  acre  to  the  2  bushels  of  orchard  grass  seed. 
Others  again  claim  good  results  from  sowing  1  bushel 
of  orchard  grass  and  8  pounds  of  red  clover.  A  few 
pounds  of  tall  oat  grass  or  of  perennial  rye  grass  are 


ORCHARD  GRASS.  141 

sometimes  added  per  acre  especially  when  growing 
meadow.  When  this  is  done'  the  amount  of  orchard 
grass  seed  is  correspondingly  reduced.  In  the  south 
orchard  grass  and  red  top  are  frequently  sown  together 
for  pasture.  When  thus  sown,  14  pounds  of  orchard 
grass  and  7  pounds  of  red  top  would  probably  suffice. 
In  some  instances  timothy  is  added,  but  rather  with  the 
object  of  covering  the  ground  more  perfectly  and  thus 
increasing  the  pasture  than  of  making  hay.  When 
sown  in  permanent  pastures  the  amount  of  seed  to  sow 
will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  pasture  but  will 
vary  all  the  way  from  a  few  pounds  up  to  a  bushel  ac- 
cording to  the  conditions. 

Much  care  should  ,o  exercised  in  purchasing  orchard 
grass  seed  lest  it  be  adulterated  with  the  seeds  of  one 
or  the  other  of  the  rye  grasses.  The  author  has  been 
told  by  a  very  competent  seedsman  who  has  been 
long  prominent  in  the  seed  business,  that  not  less  than 
four-fifths  of  the  orchard  grass  seed  of  commerce  is 
much  adulterated  with  the  seeds  of  the  afore-mentioned 
grasses.  These  are  cheaper  and  their  detection  is  not 
easy  because  of  their  similarity. 

Pasturing. — Since  orchard  grass  comes  up  early  in 
the  spring,  the  pasturing  may  begin  correspondingly 
early.  Since  also  the  leaves  become  a  little  coarse  and 
Jess  tender  with  advancing  age,  and  since  it  soon  reaches 
that  stage  where  seed  stems  are  thrown  up,  it  is  well  to 
pasture  this  grass  with  reasonable  promptness  and  close- 
ness in  the  early  part  of  the  season.  When  the  season 
advances  and  becomes  more  dry  as  it  advances,  as  is 
very  frequently  the  case,  the  growth  is  less  vigorous,  but 


142  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

as  soon  as  the  fall  rains  come  growth  begins  again  and 
is  strong  and  free  in  proportion  as  moisture  and  plant 
food  are  present  in  the  soil.  The  growth  of  orchard 
grass  is  more  prolonged  and  continuous  than  that  of  blue 
grass,  and  it  provides  more  pasture,  but  the  pasture  is 
not  equal  to  blue  grass  in  palatability  or  in  nutritive 
qualities. 

Where  the  spring  grazing  is  not  reasonably  close,  the 
seed  stems  formed  will  not  be  eaten  readily  by  live  stock. 
If  left  standing  they  will  of  course  produce  seed,  which 
tends  to  lessen  production  in  the  pasture.  This  may  be 
avoided  as  in  the  case  of  timothy  by  running  the  field 
mower  over  the  field,  the  cutter  bar  being  raised  high. 
Weeds  that  may  be  growing  in  the  pasture  will  thus  also 
fall  before  the  mower. 

From  Central  Indiana  southward,  orchard  grass  is 
frequently  grazed  during  much  of  the  winter.  This 
may  be  done  in  a  judicious  manner  without  injury  to 
the  grass  when  once  it  has  become  well  established.  It 
may  even  be  pastured  with  some  freedom  by  horses  and 
sheep,  when  covered  to  a  considerable  depth  with  snow. 
But  care  must  be  taken  not  to  pasture  it  when  the  ground 
is  so  soft  that  the  feet  of  the  animals  which  feed  upon 
it  will  sink  into  the  same,  and  the  more  the  clay  incre- 
ment in  the  soil,  the  greater  will  be  the  injury  that  will 
follow  such  pasturing.  ^Torth  of  the  latitude  named 
this  grass  is  also  sometimes  pastured  in  winter,  but 
where  the  cold  is  severe,  much  grazing  injures  the  plants 
more  or  less  by  removing  needed  protection.  The  pala- 
table and  nutritive  qualities  of  the  grass  are  also  in- 
jured by  temperatures  low  beyond  a  certain  degree. 


ORCHARD  GRASS.  143 

Pasturing  orchard  grass  the  season  that  it  is  sown 
should  be  avoided  unless  the  plants  are  vigorous  and 
the  growth  luxuriant.  But  where  both  the  conditions 
named  are  present,  pasturing  may  follow  without  hazard 
in  the  autumn  and  in  mild  climates  also  in  the  winter. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Since  orchard  grass  quickly 
matures  after  the  heads  appear,  it  should  be  cut  for  hay 
with  promptness  as  soon  as  it  comes  into  flower,  or,  what 
some  consider  better,  as  soon  as  the  flowers  have  fallen 
in  part  or  in  whole.  If  not  cut  until  a  later  stage,  the 
stems  quickly  become  woody  and  the  hay  loses  much 
in  palatability.  For  this  reason  and  for  the  further 
reason  that  orchard  grass  matures  for  hay  in  a  busy 
season,  no  more  of  it  should  be  kept  for  hay  than  the 
grower  can  harvest  at  the  proper  time.  When  cut  it 
should  be  cured  in  the  winrow  or  cock  rather  than  in 
the  swath.  Complete  curing  by  the  last  named  method 
would  also  result  in  a  loss  in  palatability.  When  cured 
in  the  cock  the  natural  greenness  of  the  hay  is  best  main- 
tained, but  the  labor  in  curing  is  greater  than  when 
cured  in  the  winrow.  In  curing  heavy  stands  of  this 
grass  the  tedder  may  of  course  be  made  to  render  good 
service.  Since  orchard  grass  takes  much  more  injury 
from  rain  than  timothy,  every  necessary  attention  should 
be  given  that  will  hasten  the  curing  of  the  hay.  Such 
attention  is  all  the  more  needful  because  it  is  generally 
ready  to  be  harvested  late  in  May  or  early  in  June, 
when  showers  are  usually  not  infrequent. 

After  the  first  cutting  the  grass  springs  up  again  with 
much  vigor  when  the  conditions  for  growth  are  favor- 
able. When  it  has  grown  again  for  several  weeks  it 


144  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

may  be  cut  a  second  time  for  hay  or  pastured  as  may 
be  desired.  If  the  weather  has  been  so  dry  that  many 
of  the  heads  did  not  appear  with  the  first  cutting,  they 
will  appear  during  this  second  period  of  growth,  hence 
the  crop  of  the  second  cutting  will  be  much  akin  in  char- 
acter to  that  of  the  first  cutting.  Otherwise  it  will  con- 
sist of  "rowen,"  that  is  of  leaves  which  have  grown 
up  after  the  first  cutting.  The  leaves  sometimes  make 
an  inch  of  growth  in  a  day.  A  third  cutting  is  occa- 
sionally obtained  under  conditions  that  are  quite  favor- 
able, and  in  the  case  of  irrigated  land  rich  in  character, 
a  fourth  cutting.  The  character  of  the  hay  of  the  differ- 
ent cuttings  subsequent  to  the  first  will  be  much  alike, 
since  under  normal  conditions  the  plants  head  out  but 
once  a  year.  It  may  also  be  added  that  on  unirrigated 
land  the  rule  is  to  cut  but  once  a  year  and  then  to  pasture 
subsequently. 

The  yield  in  hay  of  course  varies.  From  the  first  cut- 
ting it  may  be  put  at  about  1|-  to  1-J  tons  per  acre. 
From  three  cuttings  as  much  as  4  tons  per  acre  have 
been  obtained  in  one  season.  On  certain  soils  especially 
those  of  the  eastern  and  southern  states,  the  growth 
will  be  greatly  stimulated  by  the  application  of  suitable 
commercial  fertilizers  (see  p.  16)  just  after  each  cut- 
ting of  the  crop.  On  irrigated  soils  the  fertilizers  ought 
to  be  applied  as  soon  as  the  irrigating  waters  have  dis- 
appeared. 

Securing  Seed. — When  orchard  grass  is  ripe,  the 
heads  assume  a  light  yellow  tint,  and  the  steins  turn  yel- 
low for  some  distance  below  the  head.  When  ripe,  the 
harvesting  should  be  done  with  much  promptness,  other- 


ORCHARD  GRASS.  1  5 

wise  the  seeds  will  shatter  much  during  the  process  of 
harvesting. 

Two  methods  of  harvesting  have  met  with  more  or  less 
general  favor.  By  the  first,  the  binder  is  set  high,  ui 
least  a  foot  from  the  ground,  and  is  run  over  the  crop. 
The  object  sought  is  to  secure  the  stems  and  heads  which 
are  bound  in  sheaves  in  order  that  the  parts  beneath 
the  cut  portion  may  be  mowed  and  made  into  hay,  for 
which  it  is  fairly  well  adapted,  because  of  the  abundance 
of  the  leaves.  By  the  second  method  the  binder  is  also 
used.  The  sheaves  are  carried  by  the  bundle  carrier, 
that  a  number  may  be  dropped  off  in  one  place.  These 
are  set  up  in  round  shocks,  and  the  top  of  the  shock 
is  bound  with  a  band  drawn  from  one  of  the  sheaves. 
If  the  weather  is  good,  threshing  from  the  shock  is  labor- 
saving,  and  is  attended  with  but  little  loss  of  seed,  but 
the  crop  may  of  course  be  housed  or  stacked  and 
threshed  later.  When  drawing  the  sheaves,  the  wagon 
rack  should  be  covered  with  a  canvas  to  prevent  losing 
the  seed  that  drops  from  the  head,  with  the  same  object 
in  view  the  aim  should  be  to  lift  each  round  shock  entire 
by  using  a  suitable  fork.  It  would  dso  seem  to  be  labor 
saving  to  harvest  the  seed  with  a  stripper  suitably  made. 

The  seed  may  be  threshed  with  a  common  thresher, 
but  special  sieves  are  used.  In  winnowing  the  seed  spe- 
cial screens  are  also  necessary,  and  care  must  be  taken  in 
handling  the  same  to  avoid  heating  until  it  is  dry. 

The  yield  per  acre  varies  from  5  to  20  bushels.    The 

average  yield  is  probably  about  8  or  10  bushels.     While 

the  weight  of  the   seed   varies  somewhat,   the   average 

weight  may  be  put  at  say  14  pounds  to  the  measured 

Grasses — 10. 


146  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

bushel.  The  yield  of  the  seed  frequently  increases  from 
year  to  year  for  several  years,  and  the  stand  also  thick- 
ens from  the  shattering  out  of  the  seed.  Much  of  the 
home  grown  seed  is  now  produced  in  Kentucky,  Indiana 
and  Idaho. 

Renewing. — Since  orchard  grass  is  one  of  the  most 
abiding  of  grasses  on  soils  which  are  adapted  to  it,  or 
these  it  is  not  difficult  to  renew  it.  When  not  pastured  too 
closely,  some  of  the  seed  will  mature.  When  this  falls, 
young  plants  spring  up  and  renew  the  pasture.  But 
where  this  cannot  be  done,  the  pasture  may  be  thickened 
especially  on  favorable  soils,  by  sowing  seed  in  the  early 
fall  or  spring  and  covering  the  same  with  the  harrow. 
Under  conditions  of  abundant  moisture  harrowing  may 
not  be  necessary.  The  amount  of  seed  to  sow  will  of 
course  vary  with  the  needs  of  the  pasture.  If  the 
weather  following  such  attempts  at  renewal  should  prove 
unfavorable,  it  may  be  necessary  to  sow  again  when 
the  opportune  season  arrives.  When  the  ground  is  kept 
well  covered  with  plants,  the  herbage  will  be  finer  and 
consequently  better  than  when  the  plants  are  fewer 
and  the  yield  in  pasture  is  also  greater.  On  soils 
which  are  liable  to  heave,  the  roller  can  occasionally  be 
used  with  much  advantage,  as  may  be  necessary,  and 
this  is  true  also  of  orchard  grass  kept  for  meadow  or  for 
hay.  This  must  be  done  in  the  spring  when  the  ground 
is  not  too  moist  to  poach,  nor  too  dry  to  prevent  the 
proper  firming  of  the  plants. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
EED  TOP. 

The  name  Red  Top  is  applied  in  a  somewhat  loose 
sense  to  many  species  of  grass  growing  in  the  North 
temperate  zone,  all  or  nearly  all  of  which  are  character- 
ized by  panicles  or  heads  more  or  less  tinged  with  red- 
dish hrown  or  purple,  as  they  approach  the  ripening 
period.  These  belong  to  the  genus  Agrostis,  of  which 
it  is  said  there  are  about  one  hundred  species.  Of  these 
the  two  so-called  varieties  Agrostis  vulgaris  and  Agros- 
tis Alba,  are  by  far  the  most  useful.  These  are  not 
recognized  as  being  botanically  distinct.  When  grown 
on  dry  soils  the  stems  are  short  and  the  panicles  have  a 
lighter  shade,  hence  probably  the  distinction  Alba. 

Red  Top  in  the  United  States  is  known  by  many 
names,  nearly  all  of  which  are  more  or  less  sectional. 
fThese  include  Herd's  grass,  Bent  grass,  Creeping  Bent, 
Rhode  Island  Bent,  English  Bent,  White  Bent,  Fine 
Bent,  Burden's  or  Borden's  grass,  Dew  grass,  Summer 
Dew  grass,  Fiorin,  Finetop  and  Tall  Red  Top.  Creep- 
ing Bent  (Agrostis  stolonifera)  and  Rhode  Island  Bent 
(Agrostis  canina),  are  considered  by  some  authorities 
as  only  modifications  of  the  form  Agrostis  vulgaris 
growing  under  different  soil  conditions.  Others  look 
upon  them  as  varieties  or  sub-varieties.  It  may  truth- 
fully be  said  of  the  entire  genus  Agrostis,  that  it  passes 


148  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

into  forms  which  have  been  given  specific  names;  of 
these  names  the  term  Herd's  grass  has  by  far  the  widest 
application.  It  is  the  common  designation  for  red  top 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  in  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  south- 
ern states.  The  name  Herd's  grass  is  thought  to  have 
been  given  because  of  its  very  general  adaptation  to 
the  needs  of  the  herd.  In  all  or  nearly  all  the  northern 
states,  it  is  known  only  or  chiefly  by  the  name  of  red 
top.  In  England  the  term  Bent  is  applied  to  all,  or  at 
least  to  several,  of  the  forms  of  this  grass. 

Ked  Top  is  a  perennial  grass  which  grows  from  a  few 
inches  to  five  feet  in  height  under  varying  conditions 
of  soil  and  climate.  But  the  average  height  is  probably 
18  to  20  inches.  In  the  southern  states,  it  grows 
taller  than  in  those  north.  The  stems  are  erect,  slender, 
smooth  and  round.  The  linear  leaves  are  probably  not 
so  numerous  as  in  timothy.  The  panicle  is  oblong  and 
spreading,  and  though  it  varies  considerably  in  color 
under  different  conditions  of  growth,  the  panicle  is  gen- 
erally characterized  by  a  purple  tint  which  seems  to 
deepen  with  increasing  luxuriance  in  the  growth  of  the 
grass.  The  roots  are  more  or  less  creeping  and  gather 
food  near  the  surface,  rather  than  from  the  subsoil. 
The  form  known  as  Creeping  Bent  has  long,  prostrate 
and  creeping  stems,  which  take  root  at  every  joint. 
This  habit  of  growth  gives  it  much  power  to  grow  on 
moist  soils,  or  even  on  somewhat  dry  sandy  soils  where 
other  good  grasses  grow  shyly,  and  eventually  to  cover 
them  with  a  stiff  sod.  The  form  known  as  Rhode  Is- 
land Bent,  sometimes  called  Brown  Bent  and  Dog's 


FIG.  7. 
RED  TOP  (Agr.ostis  vulgaris). 

Tennessee  Experiment  Station. 


RED  TOP.  151 

Bent,  has  fine  root  leaves  and  is  able  to  form  a  close 
turf  on  soils  low  in  fertility.  This  grass  in  one  or  the 
other  of  its  forms  would  seem  to  have  greater  power  to 
grow  on  a  variety  of  soils  than  any  other  cultivated 
grass.  Notwithstanding,  it  grows  better  on  moist  than 
on  dry  soils,  hence  the  frequency  with  which  it  is  found 
in  sloughs,  in  ditches  and  in  by-places  generally.  Be- 
fore the  introduction  of  timothy,  it  was  a  chief  reliance 
for  hay.  Since  that  time,  it  is  grown  more  for  pasture, 
alone  or  in  mixtures  where  meadows  are  more  or  less 
permanent.  It  starts  later  in  the  spring  than  blue 
grass,  grows  more  slowly  and  is  later  coming  into  flower. 

It  is  now  more  highly  esteemed  as  a  pasture  grass 
than  a  hay  plant,  because  of  its  power  to  endure,  and 
because  of  the  degree  of  its  permanency,  but  in  many 
areas  it  is  still  considered  an  important  hay  plant.  Al- 
though quite  suitable  as  pasture  or  hay  for  horses,  cattle 
and  sheep,  when  the  growth  of  the  pasture  is  well  ad- 
vanced, it  is  not  so  highly  relished  by  the  stock. 
Though  some  claim  it  equal  to  and  even  superior  to 
timothy  for  hay,  the  claim  will  scarcely  hold  good 
when  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  palatability  or  suit- 
ability for  marketing.  But  in  nutrition,  it  is  placed 
next  to  blue  grass. 

It  is  chiefly  valuable  as  a  fertilizer  because  of  the 
humus  which  it  puts  into  the  soil  when  plowed  under. 
Because  of  its  permanency  it  may  be  made  helpful  in 
keeping  weeds  at  bay.  It  may  also  be  made  helpful  un- 
der some  conditions  in  binding  soils  that  are  gullied  and 
in  helping  to  fill  up  the  same.  (See  p.  120.) 

Distribution. — Red  Top  is  indigenous  to  Eur-ope  and 


152  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

also  to  America.  In  the  cultivated  form  it  was  doubt- 
less introduced  at  first  from  England.  It  was  called 
English  grass  by  certain  of  the  early  writers.  But  this 
grass  is  doubtless  indigenous  to  certain  low  lands  in  all 
or  nearly  all  the  Northern  States  from  New  England 
westward  to  Dakota,  more  especially  Michigan,  Wiscon- 
sin and  Minnesota,  and  in  some  states  south  from 
there.  This  fact  has  been  disputed  by  some  botanists, 
but  it  cannot  be  successfully  gainsaid.  In  Britain  this 
grass  does  not  hold  so  high  a  place  relatively  among 
the  economic  grasses  as  in  America,  and  in  the  Northern 
States  it  has  never  held  so  high  a  place  relatively  as  in 
those  further  South.  This  is  probably  owing  to  the 
freer  growth  of  certain  other  useful  grasses  in  the  North, 
as  timothy  and  blue  grass.  Red  Top  is  very  hardy. 
In  no  part  of  the  United  States  will  it  succumb  to  the 
cold.  It  is  also  able  to  endure  in  Canada  as  far  north 
as  cultivation  has  been  carried.  It  would  also  seem 
able  to  endure  more  heat  than  timothy  or  blue  grass. 
It  does  best  under  moist  conditions  and  yet  it  has  very 
considerable  power  to  endure  drought. 

It  would  probably  be  correct  to  say,  that  no  grass 
in  America  is  possessed  of  so  wide  a  distribution.  It 
will  grow  iji  one  or  the  other  of  its  forms  in  some  por- 
tion or  portions  of  almost  every  state  and  territory  in 
the  Union.  In  the  South  especially,  it  has  a  more  gen- 
eral distribution  than  any  other  grass.  The  moist  cli- 
mate of  that  region  is  favorable  to  its  growth.  It  grows 
best  there  in  the  river  bottoms  but  will  also  grow  high 
up  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains.  Notwithstanding  the 
favorable  climatic  and  soil  conditions,  in  considerable 


RED  TOP.  153 

areas  of  the  south  and  more  especially  in  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  it  would  doubtless  be  correct  to  say,  that 
even  larger  crops  can  be  grown  alone  or  in  conjunction 
with  other  grasses,  in  certain  of  the  Northern  and  Mid-, 
die  states.  These  include  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Min- 
nesota, Wisconsin  and  Michigan;  especially  in  the 
slough  lands  of  those  states  does  it  grow  with  much 
luxuriance.  In  the  New  England  States,  considerable 
prominence  relatively  is  given  to  red  top  in  the  valley 
lands.  In  New  Jersey  it  is  a  favorite  grass.  In  the 
southwestern  states,  it  does  not  flourish  without  irriga- 
tion, nor  has  it  been  found  to  render  much  service  in 
any  of  the  semi-arid  country  east  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains. In  the  irrigated  western  mountain  valleys,  hay 
fodder  crops  that  are  considered  superior  are  given  at- 
tention to  the  practical  exclusion  of  red  top.  r 

In  no  parr  of  Canada  has  much  attention  been  given 
to  the  cultivation  of  red  top.  Notwithstanding,  in 
the  low  lands  of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  it  grows  freely  and 
on  the  tide  lands  of  the  maritime  provinces  and  British 
Columbia  even  larger  crops  may  be  grown.  In  many 
parts  of  Manitoba  and  the  N.  W.  territories  of  Canada 
fairly  good  crops  can  be  grown.  It  will  also  grow,  but 
more  shyly,  on  the  uplands  of  the  maritime  provinces, 
because  of  the  want  of  nutriment  in  the  soil. 

Soils. — No  useful  grass  in  America  will  grow  on  a 
greater  variety  of  soils  and  yet  some  soils  have  far 
higher  adaptation  for  red  top  than  others.  Highest 
in  adaptation  probably,  are  the  tide  lands  which  border 
on  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific.  Next  in  adaptation 
come  the  slough  lands  composed  largely  of  humus,  or 


164  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

river  bottoms,  made  up  of  alluvial  soils  considerably 
tempered  with  clay.  After  these  would  probably  come 
the  humus  soils  of  the  prairie,  and  the  loam  soils  of 
the  same.  Then  would  come  clays  and  after  these, 
sandy  loams.  It  will  do  well  in  the  sandy  soils  of  river 
bottoms  when  enough  moisture  is  present.  While  it 
will  grow  well  on  certain  of  the  sandstone  soils  of  the 
south,  so  deficient  in  lime  as  not  to  maintain  blue  grass 
in  good  form,  it  will  grow  much  better  on  the  deep  cal- 
careous soils  of  the  same.  It  is  one  of  the  best  grasses 
to  grow  on  thin  soils,  and  it  will  even  grow,  though  in 
a  dwarfed  form,  on  poor  gravelly  soils*.  No  other  use- 
ful grass  would  seem  so  well  adapted  for  being  grown 
in  wet  situations,  even  in  places  so  moist,  as  to  be  sat- 
urated with  water  for  a  considerable  portion  of  the  late 
autumn  and  the  early  spring.  It  will  even  stand  shal- 
low submergence  for  several  days,  when  the  weather  is 
cool;  and  for  a  longer  period  than  almost  any  other 
useful  grass,  when  it  is  warm.  But  it  does  not  stand 
drought  as  well  as  Russian  brome  grass  or  some  of  the 
wheat  grasses. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Red  Top  usually  requires 
several  years  to  become  "set,"  that  is,  to  form  a  sod  as 
dense  as  it  can  become  under  the  attendant  conditions 
of  growth,  consequently  it  is  not  a  good  rotation  plant ; 
and  yet  it  would  not  be  correct  to  say  that  there  is  no 
place  for  it  in  rotations.  But  that  place  is  more  on 
uplands  than  in  reclaimed  marshes,  since  in  the  soils 
of  the  latter  it  is  more  abiding  than  on  uplands.  Speak- 
ing in  a  general  way,  on  these  and  in  fact  on  all  soils,  it 
is  helpful  in  bringing  humus  to  them,  and,  because  of 


RED  TOP.  155 

this,  the  mechanical  and  chemical  effects  of  red  top 
sod,  especially  on  worn  soils,  is  very  helpful. 

The  crops  which  may  best  be  made  to  follow  red  top 
are  those  which  feed  ravenously  on  humus  soils,  such 
for  instance  as  corn,  the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  po- 
tatoes and  rape.  But  certain  of  the  small  cereal  grains 
may  also  be  thus  grown  with  profit.  Legumes  should 
only  be  sown  thus  when  the  sod  may  be  so  stiff  as  to 
call  for  reduction  before  growing  on  the  land  such  crops 
as  wheat,  oats  and  barley. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  preparation  of  the  soil  for 
red  top  is  much  the  same  as  that  which  fits  it  for  re- 
ceiving orchard  grass.  (See  p.  138.)  But  clean  culti- 
vation preceding  red  top  is  even  more  important  than 
the  same  preceding  orchard  grass,  since  it  takes  longer  to 
become  established.  When  it  is  to  be  sown  alone,  as 
for  the  production  of  seed,  it  is  specially  important  that 
it  should  be  sown  on  clean  land,  that  is  on  land  on 
which  a  cultivated  crop  has  been  grown  under  clean  con- 
ditions. In  fact  such  conditions  are  the  most  favorable 
to  its  growth  in  all  soils.  But  on  the  galled  soils  of  the 
south  it  is  sometimes  sown  and  top  dressed  with  or 
without  manure,  according  to  the  degree  of  the  deple- 
tion, in  order  to  cover  them  with  a  grass  sward,  which 
in  turn,  will  form  in  them  the  basis  of  successful  crop 
production. 

Sowing. — Both  north  and  south  the  seed  is  sown  in 
the  autumn  and  in  the  spring.  In  the  south  autumn 
sowing  is  growing  in  favor,  since  a  better  stand  of  the 
plants  is  then  more  uniformly  obtained.  When  a  hay 
crop  is  wanted  the  first  summer  after  sowing  the  seed,  or 


156  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

even  when  grazing  is  wanted  tlms  soon  it  ought  to  be 
sown  in  the  autumn  and  on  clean  land.  This  method 
will  also  succeed  in  the  north  under  conditions  favora- 
ble to  autumn  growth,  but,  since  it  is  seldom  sown  in  the 
north  except  in  conjunction  with  other  grasses,  it  is 
more  common  to  sow  it  in  the  spring.  When  sown  in 
the  spring,  early  sowing  is  preferable,  especially  on  up- 
lands. On  marshy  lands,  considerably  saturated  with 
water,  and  on  which  it  is  desired  to  add  red  top  to  the 
grasses  that  may  be  already  growing  there,  it  is  well  to 
sow  when  the  frost  begins  to  leave  the  surface  of  the 
bare  ground. 

The  seed  is  usually  sown  by  hand.  Under  some  con- 
ditions it  may  be  sown  mixed  with  the  grain,  but,  on 
many  soils,  this  method  of  sowing  would  bury  the  seed 
too  deeply.  By  mixing  the  seed  with  certain  sub- 
stances, as  for  instance  earth,  salt,  or  wheat  bran,  it 
could  be  sown  with  the  grain  drill,  but  it  is  usually 
sown  in  the  chaff.  In  order  to  secure  a  more  even  dis- 
tribution of  the  seed,  some  growers  scatter  half  the  seed 
to  be  sown  by  going  first  in  one  direction  and  then  sowing 
the  balance  by  going  again  over  the  land  crosswise. 

When  wanted  for  meadow,  the  seed  is  frequently  sown 
alone  without  a  nurse  crop.,  and,  as  previously  intimated 
in  the  autumn.  When  sown  in  the  chaff,  it  is  almost 
invariably  sown  in  the  autumn,  and  in  no  other  way 
can  a  stand  be  so.  certainly  secured.  The  seed  is  then 
fresh,  its  germinating  power  is  at  -the  best,  and  the 
chaff  scale  aids  in  keeping  the  seed  in  that  damp  con- 
dition which  is  favorable  to  quick  and  sure  germination. 
But  it  may  also  be  sown  in  the  autumn,  along  with  a 


RED  TOP.  157 

nurse  crop,  as  for  instance,  winter  rye,  winter  wheat  or 
winter  barley,  and  in  conjunction  with  timothy.  When 
sown  in  the  autumn,  a  stand  is  on  the  whole  more  as- 
sured than  when  sown  in  the  spring.  In  the  spring, 
red  top  may  be  sown  with  any  of  the  small  cereal 
grains,  but  when  thus  sown  the  aim  should  be  not  to 
shade  the  ground  too  densely  by  using  a  more  or  less 
reduced  quantity  of  the  seed  of  the  nurse  crop.  When 
sown  on  galled  or  impoverished  lands,  in  order  to  cover 
them  with  a  sod,  it  is  also  usually  sown  alone. 

When  sown  in  combination  with  other  grasses  red 
top  and  timothy  make  a  favorite  mixture  on  soils  neither 
high  nor  very  low.  On  low  soils  no  combination  of 
grasses  for  hay  is  more  popular  than  red  top,  timothy 
and  alsike  clover.  These  are  adapted  to  the  same  soils 
and  mature  about  the  same  time.  When  sown  for  pas- 
ture, this  grass  may  be  sown  alone,  but  better  in  com- 
bination with  other  grasses  and  with  certain  of  the 
clovers,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  conditions  of  cli- 
mate and  soil. 

The  extent  of  the  covering  required  depends  largely 
on  soil  conditions;  sometimes  in  both  fall  and  spring- 
sowing,  no  covering  is  required.  In  other  instances,  the 
roller  will  furnish  a  sufficient  covering;  usually,  how- 
ever, a  light  harrow  furnishes  the  best  covering  for  the 
seed. 

The  amount  of  seed  to  sow  will  vary  with  the  object 
sought  in  sowing,  as  in  providing  hay  or  pasture,  with 
the  cleanness  of  the  seed  and  with  the  nature  of  the 
combination  with  which  the  seed  is  sown.  When  sown 
alone  with  a  view  to  make  pasture  quickly,  more  seed 


158  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

would  be  required  than  if  sown  to  provide  hay  or  t6  fur- 
nish seed.  From  half  a  bushel  to  a  bushel  of  clean  seed 
is  the  amount  sown  by  many  growers,  but  some  sow  con- 
siderably more,  even  as  much  as  two  bushels.  The  nor- 
mal standard  bushel  weighs  14  pounds,  but  as  the  seed 
comes  into  the  market,  the  measured  bushel  varies  from 
an  amount  considerably  below  the  standard  to  as  high 
as  44  pounds.  It  is  very  evident,  therefore,  that  the 
amount  of  seed  to  be  sown  will  vary  greatly  with  the 
character  of  the  seed  used,  a  fact  that  should  not  be  over- 
looked when  purchasing  seed  or  when  sowing  the  same. 
When  sown  in  mixtures  for  hay  or  for  pasture,  the 
amounts  of  seed  to  use  will  lessen  with  the  number  of 
the  varieties  sown  and  with  the  amounts  of  seed  used 
in  these.  When  clean  seed  is  used,  6  pounds  of  red  top 
and  6  pounds  of  timothy  would  suffice  per  acre.  If  red 
clover  is  added,  4  pounds  of  red  top,  4  of  timothy  and  6 
pounds  of  common  red  or  mammoth  clover  would  suf- 
fice. When  sown  with  alsike  clover  and  timothy,  3 
pounds  of  the  alsike,  4  pounds  of  timothy  and  4  pounds 
of  red  top  should  be  enough. 

When  sown  in  mixtures  for  pasture,  orchard  grass 
and  red  top  go  well  together  on  southern  uplands.  Four- 
teen pounds  of  the  former  and  7  of  the  latter  should 
make  a  sufficient  seeding.  In  the  north  011  land  somewhat 
low,  4  to  5  pounds  of  clean  blue  grass  seed  per  acre  may 
be  profitably  added  to  the  mixture  of  alsike  clover,  tim- 
othy and  red  top  given  above  for  hay,  even  though  the 
pasturing  should  not  begin  until  two  or  three  crops  of 
hay  have  been  harvested.  But  red  top  may  usually  be 
added  with  profit  to  any  combination  of  grasses  used 


RED  TOP.  159 

north  or  south  in  making  permanent  pastures.  Usually 
from  3  to  5  pounds  of  good  clean  red  top  seed  should- 
be  enough  to  sow  per  acre  in  such  combinations.  It 
should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  amounts  of 
seed  named  are  only  approximate  estimates,  and  that  it 
may  be  necessary  to  vary  them  to  suit  varying  condi- 
tions. 

In  the  south  red  top  is  sometimes  used  in  making 
lawns.  For  such  a  use  it  has  a  higher  adaptation  than 
blue  grass.  When  so  used,  much  of  what  was  said  as 
to  methods  to  be  followed  when  sowing  blue  grass  on 
lawns  will  also  apply  to  red  top. 

Pasturing. — Although  seldom  sown  alone  in  the 
northern  states  or  in  Canada  to  provide  pasture,  it  is  a 
chief  reliance  for  such  a  use  in  many  parts  of  the 
southern  states.  It  is  highly  valued  there  as  a  pasture 
grass  because  it  is  nutritious  and  fairly  well  relished  by 
stock ;  because  it  will  provide  much  grazing  in  the  year, 
even  in  addition  to  a  crop  of  hay;  because  it  furnishes 
good  winter  as  well  as  summer  grazing ;  because  it  forms 
a  good  sod  that  stands  grazing  well;  and  because  it  is, 
for  the  conditions  named,  one  of  the  most  enduring 
grasses. 

As  already  intimated,  it  ranks  nearly  as  high  as  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass  in  its  nutritive  properties  and,  until 
well  advanced  in  growth,  it  has  a  fair  amount  of  succu- 
lence. But  when  it  approaches  the  ripening  stage,  stock 
do  not  eat  it.  Nevertheless,  when  properly  grazed,  it 
will  furnish  good  pasture  for  all  kinds  of  stock,  even  for 
dairy  cows  whose  needs  call  for  succulent  food  much  of 
the  vcar. 


160  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Although  it  is  a  little  slow  in  starting  in  the  spring 
and  after  it  has  been  cut  for  hay,  because  of  continuity 
in  the  growth,  the  amount  of  grazing  furnished  is  rela- 
tively large.  Some  farmers  in  the  states  which  circle 
around  Kentucky,  claim  that  they  get  from  5  to  7 
months'  pasture  from  it  in  addition  to  a  crop  of  hay.  It 
is  probable,  however,  that  when  thus  grazed,  the  pro- 
duction of  both  hay  and  pasture  is  less  than  it  would 
be  if  not  grazed  so  much.  Unless  on  soils  low  and 
quite  rich,  the  best  crops  of  hay  will  be  obtained  from 
lands  not  grazed  closely  in  the  autumn. 

In  warm  spells  in  winter,  it  may  be  grazed  in  the 
south,  at  least  in  many  instances,  without  injury  to  the 
grasses  after  it  has  formed  a  good  sod.  When  not  close- 
ly grazed  in  summer,  the  dead  grass  of  that  season  falls 
down  and  provides  a  mulch  for  the  young  grass,  amid 
which  young  blades  grow  up,  even  in  the  winter.  In  the 
spring,  such  pastures  are  especially  prized  for  areas  that 
are  producing  lambs.  These  pastures  are  so  highly  use- 
ful to  southern  farmers,  that  they  study  to  provide 
them  for  their  live  stock.  Although  red  top  eventually 
forms  a  stiff  sod,  considerable  time  is  necessary  before 
this  can  be  secured.  Consequently  heavy  grazing  the 
first  season  after  sowing  in  the  spring  or  even  in  the 
autumn  should  be  avoided.  The  variety  Agrostis  stol- 
onifera  forms  so  stiff  a  sod  even  on  lands  considerably 
saturated  with  water,  that  they  will  not  poach  when 
grazed  by  live  stock.  But  even  on  sterile  soils,  ordi- 
nary red  top  will  eventually  furnish  a  dense  sod. 

All  authorities  are  agreed  as  to  the  enduring  charac- 
ter of  this  grass.  To  southern  farmers  this  is  a  matter 


RED  TOP.  161 

of  much  moment,  since  with  them  blue  grass  and  tim- 
othy are  not  so  valuable  relatively,  nor  are  they  so  en- 
during as  in  the  north.  In  southern  pastures,  red  top 
will  endure  where  eventually  both  timothy  and  blue 
grass  will  fail.  Because  of  this  property,  red  top 
should  be  given  much  prominence  in  the  permanent  pas- 
tures of  the  south. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Before  the  general  introduc- 
tion of  timothy,  red  top  was  a  principal  reliance  for  hay. 
In  the  southern  states,  it  is  still  one  of  the  principal  hay 
crops,  or  at  least  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  the  same. 
In  the  North,  it  is  seldom  sown  for  hay  except  in  mix- 
tures. While  some  farmers  claim  that  it  is  superior  to 
timothy  for  hay,  timothy  is  usually,  and  doubtless  with 
good  reason,  considered  superior  as  a  hay  plant.  It 
weighs  more  heavily  in  proportion  to  the  bulk,  and  in 
the  North  especially,  larger  average  crops  can  be  ob- 
tained. But  red  top  has  the  advantage  of  having  small- 
er and  softer  stems. 

It  is  ready  for  being  cut  when  in  fullest  bloom,  or 
at  a  period  somewhat  later,  especially  when  it  is  to  be 
fed  to  horses.  If  allowed  to  stand  too  long,  the  palata- 
bility  will  be  lessened.  It  is  cut,  of  course,  with  the 
field  mower.  It  is  more  easily  cured  than  many  kinds 
of  grass.  If  mown  in  the  afternoon  and  tedded  the 
next  morning  once  or  twice,  it  may  then  be  raked  and 
put  into  cocks.  After  standing  a  day  or  two  it  is  ready 
for  being  stored.  In  good  weather  the  curing  process 
may  be  completed  in  the  winrow,  which  has  the  advan- 
tage of  making  it  possible  to  lift  it  with  the  hay  tedder. 
When  cut  toward  the  period  of  full  maturity,  it  is  pos- 
Grasses — 11. 


162  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

sible  by  using  the  tedder  freely  to  cut  in  the  meaning 
after  the  dew  has  lifted  and  to  store  the  same  evening. 

The  average  yields  of  red  top  lie  between  one  and 
two  tons  per  acre.  On  ordinary  soils  the  yield  would 
not  usually  be  much  more  than  one  ton,  and  on  rich 
low  land  it  would  seldom  be  less  than  2  tons.  Under 
the  most  favorable  conditions,  as  much  as  4  tons  per 
acre  have  been  harvested.  In  mixtures,  as  when  grown 
with  timothy  and  alsike  clover,  the  average  crop  would 
probably  exceed  two  tons  per  acre. 

Securing  Seed. — Illinois  and  New  Jersey  would  seem 
to  be  the  centers  of  seed  production  at  the  present  time. 
The  crop  is  ready  for  being  harvested  in  about  20  days 
from  the  time  when  it  is  in  full  flower,  but  this  will  vary 
with  the  weather.  It  should  not  be  left  unharvested  for 
a  very  long  period  after  the  grain  is  fully  grown  within 
the  chaff. 

At  least  three  methods  of  harvesting  the  seed  have 
been  adopted.  By  the  first  of  these  it  is  cut  with  the 
self-rake  reaper,  and  laid  off  in  loose  sheaves.  By  the 
second  it  is  cut  with  the  binder  and  the  sheaves  are  stood 
up  in  long  shocks.  By  the  third  the  seed  is  secured  by 
the  aid  of  the  stripper.  The  first  method  can  be  best 
practiced  only  when  the  weather  is  good.  It  facilitates 
rapid  curing.  The  second  method  is  safer  when  the 
weather  is  broken,  and  it  facilitates  the  easy  handling 
of  the  crop.  The  stripper  may  be  used  in  the  same  way 
as  in  harvesting  the  seed  of  blue  grass.  The  last  named 
method  is  by  far  the  most  expeditious  of  the  three,  but  it 
leaves  the  straw  in  the  field  where  it  grew.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  a  total  loss,  as  when  it  falls  down  in  the  au- 


RED  TOP.  163 

tumn  it  will  serve  as  a  mulch  to  protect  and  encourage 
the  growth  of  winter  and  early  spring  grazing. 

When  the  crop  is  cut  with  the  binder,  which  is  the 
method  usually  adopted,  it  may  be  threshed  at  once. 
As  it  will  keep  well  in  the  mow  or  the  properly  made 
stack,  threshing  may  be  deferred  when  desired  until  the 
busy  season  for  work  is  over.  In  threshing  with  the 
ordinary  threshing  machine,  the  wind  must  be  partly 
shut  off,  as  the  seed  and  chaff  are  light.  Special  screens 
must  also  be  used  in  threshing.  When  the  seed  is  be- 
ing stripped  care  must  be  taken  as  with  blue  grass  to 
store  it  in  a  way  that  will  prevent  heating  and  the  loss 
in  germinating  power  that  would  follow.  (See  pp.  102 
and  103.) 

Ordinary  winnowing  mills  well  equipped  with  sieves 
and' properly  run  may  be  used  in  separating  the  chaff 
from  the  seed,  but  to  do  this  work  in  the  very  best 
form  and  with  dispatch,  special  sieves  are  desirable. 
For  home  use,  and  especially  when  the  seed  has  been 
stripped,  no  better  plan  can  be  adopted  than  to  sow  the 
seed  in  the  chaff.  As  red  top  seeds  freely,  the  seed  may 
be  cheaply  secured  by  the  farmer  in  this  way  and  conse- 
quently liberal  quantities  of  the  seed  may  be  sown. 

The  states  that  are  said  to  furnish  red  top  seed  in  the 
largest  quantities  at  the  present  time  are  those  of  Illi- 
nois, Indiana,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Since  how- 
ever this  grass  is  indigenous  to  the  low  lands  of  Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  it  would  seem  probable 
that  in  time  much  seed  would  also  be  grown  in  these 
and  in  some  other  states.  The  production  of  seed  may 
ho  set  down  at  8  to  20  bushels  per  acre. 


16 1  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Renewing. — Since  red  top  is  one  of  the  hardiest  of 
grasses,  and  since,  under  fair  treatment,  the  sod  tends 
to  improve,  renewal,  in  the  sense  of  obtaining  a  stand 
and  maintaining  it,  is  only  necessary  when  the  catch 
is  imperfect,  or  when  it  is  desired  to  stimulate  the 
grass  by  the  application  of  fertilizers. 

Where  the  stand  of  the  young  plants  is  not  sufficiently 
numerous,  it  may  usually  be  improved  by  simply  adding 
more  seed.  This  may  be  done  in  the  early  autumn,  in 
advance  of  or  simultaneously  with  the  coming  of  the 
first  rains,  in  the  late  autumn,  too  late  to  admit  of  the 
seed  sprouting  before  the  arrival  of  spring,  or  in  the 
early  spring.  Whether  harrowing  is  necessary  must  be 
determined  by  the  circumstances.  If  the  seed  is  sown 
in  the  early  autumn  and  especially  if  fresh  seed  is 
sown  in  the  chaff,  it  is  usually  not  greatly  important  that 
the  harrow  shall  be  used.  The  thickening  of  the  stand 
of  seed  may  also  be  hastened  by  allowing  the  plants  pres- 
ent to  ripen  their  seeds  and  then  let  the  winds  strew 
them  over  the  ground.  This  method  will  be  found  quite 
effective  especially  on  moist  soils.  In  this  way  hillsides 
given  to  washing  with  the  rains  may  be  clothed  after 
scattering  plants  have  obtained  a  foothold  on  the  same. 

For  renewing  in  the  sense  of  stimulating  growth,  no 
fertilizer  is  equal  to  farmyard  manure  applied  as  a  top 
dressing,  since  it  acts  quickly,  its  action  is  prolonged, 
and  in  addition,  for  a  considerable  period  it  provides  a 
mulch  for  the  grass  which  is  helpful  to  it  both  summer 
and  winter.  But  commercial  fertilizers  will  also  ren- 
der good  service.  (See  p.  17.) 

In  some  soils  with  high  adaptation  to  the  growth  of 


RED  TOP.  165 

this  grass  it  will  come  into  land  on  which  it  has  been 
previously  grown  without  being  sown,  where  cultivat- 
ing to  produce  crops  may  have  ceased,  and  will  in  time 
form  pastures  as  blue  grass  does.  It  will  also  come  into 
pastures  in  which  it  has  not  been  sown  and  add  to  their 
productiveness.  And  yet  its  eradication  to  the  extent  of 
not  being  harmful  to  grain  crops  is  easy.  The  agress- 
ive  power  which  thus  inheres  in  red  top  is  not  equal 
to  that  of  blue  grass. 

Binding  Soils. — In  the  southern  states  especially, 
red  top  has  been  found  useful  in  binding  soils  that 
wash,  in  making  the  further  gullying  of  the  land  to 
cease,  and  in  filling  up  gullies  that  have  been  made.  It 
is  claimed  that  for  such  a  use  no  grass  will  equal  it  in 
the  South  except  Bermuda  grass.  Into  the  sides  of  these 
it  sends  its  long  rhizomes  which  produce  fresh  plants. 
In  time  they  cover  the  bottom  of  the  gully.  The  plants 
growing  there  will  catch  and  hold  soil  that  is  being 
carried  down  by  the  water.  The  process  is  repeated 
from  year  to  year  until,  in  time,  much  of  the  depression 
is  filled. 


CHAPTEE  VIII. 

RUSSIA!^  BROME  GRASS. 

Russian  Brome  grass  (Bromus  inermis)  is  also 
known  in  America  by  the  names  Austrian  Brome,  Hun- 
garian Brome  and  Awnless  Brome,  but  more  common- 
ly it  is  designated  simply  Brome  grass,  or  Bromus.  The 
name  Austrian  Brome  grass  was  given  to  this  grass  in 
the  earlier  references  made  to  it  in  the  reports  of  the 
experimental  farms  of  Canada,  where  it  was  first  tested 
and  from  which  it  was  first  distributed  to  any  consider- 
able extent  in  America.  It  was  so  given  doubtless  be- 
cause of  the  extent  to  which  it  has  been  grown  in  Aus- 
tria during  recent  years,  and  because  of  the  high  adapta- 
tion which  it  has  for  the  light  soils  of  that  country. 
Similarly,  doubtless,  the  origin  of  the  name  Hungarian 
Brome  grass  is  to  be  accounted  for.  The  term  Awnless 
Brome  grass  is  owing  to  the  absence  of  awns  on  the 
panicles.  But  the  name  Russian  Brome  grass  would 
seem  to  be  more  appropriate  because  of  the  longer  period 
during  which  it  has  been  grown  in  Russia. 

Russian  brome  grass  grows  to  the  average  height  of 
about  24  inches,  but  under  some  conditions  it  will  reach 
the  height  of  fully  5  feet,  and  under  others  it  will  not 
come  into  head  at  all.  The  leaves  are  medium  large 
and  the  leaf  growth  is  very  abundant  for  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  ground.  The  leaves  furnish  a  dense 


k 


FIG.  8. 

RUSSIAN  BROME  GRASS  (Bromus  inermis). 
Tennessee  Experiment  Station. 


RUSSIAN  BROME  GRASS.  169 

mass  of  foliage  which  completely  hides  the  earth.  The 
roots  push  through  the  ground  like  those  of  quack  grass 
(Agropyrum  repens),  hence,  they  soon  fill  the  soil. 
Because  of  this  quality,  Russian  brome,  though  it  should 
grow  but  thinly  at  the  first,  will  soon  so  possess  the  soil 
with  its  roots,  that  a  thick  and  dense  sward  will  be  pro- 
duced. The  stems  are  surmounted  by  a  panicle  open 
and  spreading  and  that  is  usually  4  to  6  inches  long,  but 
in  some  instances  is  considerably  longer. 

This  grass  can  endure  any  amount  of  cold.  It  would 
also  seem  able  to  stand  almost  any  amount  of  heat  such 
as  is  experienced  in  the  temperate  zone.  It  is  probably 
unequalled  by  any  of  the  cultivated  grasses  in  its  ability 
to  grow  in  light  soils  and  to  withstand  drought  unless 
it  be  Western  Rye  grass  (Agropyrum  tenerurn).  It 
comes  up  in  the  spring  earlier  than  any  of  the  valuable 
grasses.  It  grows  through  much  of  the  summer  when 
a  reasonable  amount  of  moisture  is  present,  and  it  con- 
tinues to  grow  until  frost  somewhat  severe  causes  a  ces- 
sation in  the  same.  It  comes  into  head  in  the  month  of 
June,  in  northerly  areas,  and  earlier  in  those  that  are 
southerly.  In  from  three  to  five  weeks  after  it  comes 
into  head,  the  seeds  are  mature.  Recent  experience  in 
growing  it  at  the  Indian  Head  Experiment  Farm,  Assa., 
Canada,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  it  will  grow  well  in 
shade. 

Russian  brome  grass  is  essentially  a  pasture  grass, 
but  it  also  makes  good  hay.  All  kinds  of  stock  are  fond 
of  it,  and  no  other  grass,  unless  it  be  orchard  grass,  will 
furnish  grazing  for  so  large  a  portion  of  the  year.  Its 
producing  and  feeding  value  for  hay  is  about  equal  to 


170  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

that  of  timothy,  but  the  latter  is  more  marketable  be- 
cause of  its  greater  weight  in  proportion  to  the  bulk,  and 
it  is  also  preferred  in  the  meantime  for  feeding  horses. 
The  greatest  weakness  of  Russian  brome  grass  probably, 
is  the  Tendency  which  it  has  to  thicken  to  such  an  extent 
that  growth  is  checked  in  consequence. 

Distribution. — Russian  brome  grass  is  indigenous  to 
Asia  and  Europe,  ranging  from  the  Atlantic  to  Siberia. 
In  Europe  it  has  been  cultivated  for  more  than  a  century 
and  for  a  long  time  to  a  greater  extent  in  Russia  than  in 
other  divisions  of  that  continent.  During  the  last  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  it  was  introduced  into  Hun- 
gary and  by  a  long  series  of  experiments  its  superior 
adaptation  for  light  lands  in  that  country  was  demon- 
strated, as  also  its  ability  to  withstand  well,  long  periods 
of  drought.  In  both  Europe  and  Asia  it  was  first  grown 
northward  rather  than  southward,  and  on  soils  light 
rather  than  heavy.  Since  it  has  been  introduced  into 
Xorth  America  it  has  shown  at  least  equal  adaptation 
for  like  conditions.  There  is  probably  no  grass  among 
the  hundreds  that  have  been  tried  on  this  continent 
which  may  be  grown  successfully  over  a  wider  area  and 
under  a  greater  variety  of  conditions. 

Russian  brome  grass  was  first  introduced  into  the 
United  States  in  1882  by  the  experiment  station  of  Cali- 
fornia. It  was  first  introduced  into  Canada  by  Dr. 
William  Saunders,  director  of  Experiment  Farms  in 
that  country,  in  1886.  In  experiments  conducted  with 
it  at  stations  in  the  various  provinces,  it  was  found  pre- 
eminently adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the  northwestern 
provinces  of  that  country.  The  general  distribution  of 


RUSSIAN  BROME  GRASS.  171 

seed  began  there  as  early  as  1890,  and  was  continued  for 
a  number  of  years,  with  the  result  that  it  is  now  quite 
generally  grown  over  the  Canadian  Northwest. 

While  the  first  introduction  of  Russian  brome  grass 
into  America  is  to  be  credited  to  California,  the  fact 
remains,  nevertheless,  that  the  first  general  seed  distri- 
bution of  the  grass  over  large  areas  is  to  be  credited  to 
Canada.  It  was  in  that  country  that  it  was  first  exten- 
sively tried.  There  also  the  seed  was  first  grown  for  the 
seed  trade  in  America,  and  it  was  from  that  country 
the  seed  merchants  of  the  United  States  first  obtained 
supplies  of  American  grown  seed.  Moreover,  the  at- 
tention of  the  American  public  was  largely  drawn  to  its 
merits  through  the  many  references  made  to  it  in  Cana- 
dian publications.  Of  all  the  foreign  grasses  intro- 
duced into  America  during  recent  decades,  this  grass 
promises  to  be  the  most  generally  useful.  Until  within 
the  past  few  years  nearly  all  the  seed  sown  has  been 
imported  from  Europe  and  Asia.  But  now  much  seed 
is  being  grown  not  only  in  the  Canadian  Northwest  but 
also  in  certain  of  the  northwestern  states  of  the  Union. 

This  grass  will  grow  better  where  moisture  is  abun- 
dant and  the  temperature  moderate  than  under  condi- 
tions the  opposite ;  but  it  has  at  the  same  time,  unusual 
power  to  successfully  withstand  cold  and  drought. 
When  once  established,  temperatures,  howsoever  low,  do 
not  seem  to  destroy  it.  Reference  has  already  been 
made  to  its  great  drought  resisting  qualities,  but  its 
value  as  a  drought  resisting  grass  lies  more  in  its  ability 
to  live  under  dry  conditions  than  to  grow  under  the 
same.  It  keeps  alive  under  conditions  that  would  de- 


172  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

stroy  many  other  grasses  and  it  will  then  grow  vigor- 
ously when  moisture  is  brought  to  it.  It  can  be  made 
to  render  excellent  service  in  states  where  the  rainfall 
is  not  more  than  12  to  15  inches. 

There  is  no  state  in  the  Union  in  which  brome  grass 
will  not  grow  more  or  less  vigorously,  but  as  with  timo- 
thy, it  has  highest  adaptation  for  the  states  which  lie 
north  of  the  line  that  marks  the  northern  boundary  of 
Tennessee.  Owing  to  its  recent  introduction  it  can 
scarcely  be  said  that  its  distribution  in  the  United  States 
has  been  fully  determined,  but  the  reports  that  come 
from  the  experiment  stations  north  of  this  limit  named, 
nearly  all  speak  more  highly  of  the  results  obtained 
from  growing  it  than  do  the  stations  located  in  states 
south  of  the  said  line.  As  in  the  case  of  timothy,  the 
best  crops  of  this  grass  can  be  grown  in  those  states  that 
border  on  the  Canadian  boundary  line,  but  the  centers 
of  distribution  in  this  country  are  more  likely  to  extend 
westward  from  the  Mississippi  until  the  Cascade  moun- 
tains are  reached,  and  southward  from  the  said  bound- 
ary through  two  or  three  tiers  of  states.  In  other  words 
it  will  be  found  in  the  northerly  areas  of  the  semi-arid 
belt,  and  in  areas  that  border  upon  the  same  to  the  east 
and  the  west.  Its  highest  utility  will  probably  be  found 
in  North  and  South  Dakota.  But  it  is  likely  to  render 
much  service  also  to  Western  Minnesota,  Kansas,  Ne- 
braska, Wyoming,  Montana,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Washing- 
ton and  Oregon,  and  it  may  be  other  states  south  from 
these.  The  centers  of  distribution  are  likely  to  cul- 
minate in  these  states,  not  because  Russian  brome  grass 
will  grow  better  in  them  than  in  states  further  to  the 


RUSSIAN  BROME  GRASS.  173 

east,  but  because  it  will  grow  better  in  them  than  other 
useful  grasses. 

This  grass  will  grow  at  least  fairly  well  in  all  the 
provinces  of  Canada,  but  the  center  of  distribution  is 
likely  to  be  found  in  the  prairie  provinces,  since  in  these 
other  grasses  do  not  grow  so  satisfactorily.  The  best 
crops  of  this  grass,  grown  on  the  continent,  will  probably 
be  grown  in  Manitoba,  Assiniboia,  Saskatchewan  and 
Alberta.  Much  of  the  upland  soil  in  the  Canadian 
maritime  provinces  bordering  on  the  Atlantic,  like  the 
soil  of  New  England,  is  too  low  in  fertility  to  grow  this 
grass  in  best  form  without  first  being  enriched. 

Soils. — But  few  kinds  of  grass  will  grow  so  well  on 
so  great  a  variety  of  soils.  The  popular  idea  in  Amer- 
ica, at  least,  is,  as  previously  intimated,  that  it  has  spe- 
cial adaptation,  for  sandy  soils,  deficient  in  moisture. 
This  view  is  only  partially  correct.  While  it  has  rela- 
tively high  adaptation  for  these,  the  richer  and  the  more 
moist  the  soil,  the  better  will  this  grass  grow  in  it.  The 
best  crops  of  Russian  brome  grass,  therefore,  in  tillable 
areas,  will  be  obtained  from  rich  alluvial  deposits,  or 
from  valley  lands  with  a  deep  moist  soil  and  abounding 
in  humus.  Next  in  order  in  adaptation  may  be  placed 
clay  loam  soils,  open  in  texture  and  rich  in  the  elements 
of  plant  food.  After  these  the  ordinary  soils  of  the 
prairie  so  largely  made  up  of  vegetable  matter;  then 
clays ;  after  clays  sandy  loams  and  gravelly  loams ;  and 
last  of  all  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  deficient  in  loam  and 
also  in  moisture.  In  the  states  which  include  the  range 
country,  this  grass  will  of  course  grow  at  its  best  in 
the  valleys  where  it  can  be  irrigated,  but  in  many  of 


174  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

these  it  will  grow  better  than  almost  any  other  kind 
of  grass  that  has  been  tried  without  irrigation.  In 
slough  lands  it  grows  luxuriantly  when  these  are 
drained,  and  will  live  and  flourish  though  covered  with 
shallow  waters  even  for  weeks  in  succession  while  the 
weather  is  cool,  and  yet  on  dry  sandy  soils,  when  once 
established,  it  has  great  power  to  maintain  its  hold. 
The  luxuriance  with  which  it  grows  is  greatly  influenced 
by  moisture.  Because  of  this,  the  returns  in  pasture  or 
in  hay  will  greatly  fluctuate  where  the  weather  condi- 
tions are  fitful,  hence,  in  certain  areas  of  the  range, 
while  in  some  seasons  it  may  not  be  profitable  to  mow 
it,  in  other  seasons  it  may  give  a  bountiful  return. 

Place  in  the  Eolation. — Russian  brome  grass  is  of  so 
recent  introduction  into  this  country,  that  its  place  in 
the  rotation  has  not  yet  been  very  clearly  defined  in 
the  practice  of  those  who  have  grown  it.  As  it  has 
been  grown  more  under  conditions  where  the  rainfall  is 
light,  the  inclination  has  been  not  to  break  up  the  sod 
where  it  has  once  been  established  for  a  number  of 
years.  Notably  has  this  been  true  of  the  semi-arid  coun- 
try in  the  west,  where  it  has  been  grown  thus  far  chiefly 
for  hay.  In  such  areas"  it  is  quite  frequently  sown  on 
the  newly  broken  prairie  prepared  as  for  wheat.  But  in 
time  it  will  probably  be  found  that  it  will  be  good  prac- 
tice to  follow  it  with  some  variety  of  corn  adapted  to 
the  soil  and  weather  conditions  where  this  crop  can  be 
successfully  grown,  following  the  corn  with  one  or  more 
grain  crops  and  again  sowing  with  brome  grass.  The 
number  of  the  crops  that  should  be  taken  before  the 
brome  grass  is  again  broken  up  cannot  be  stated  definite- 


RUSSIAN  BROME  GRASS.  175 

Ij  until  experience  has  thrown  more  light  upon  this  ques- 
tion, but  it  will  probably  be  found  that  it  would  not 
be  advisable  to  take  more  than  two  crops  of  hay  and 
one  or  two  of  pasture,  before  breaking  up  the  sod.  In 
any  event,  the  sod  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  so 
filled  with  the  roots  of  the  grass  before  this  is  done  as  to 
preclude  the  possibility  of  making  a  good  seed  bed-  for 
corn  or  other  crops  on  the  overturned  sod  without  too 
great  an  expenditure  of  labor. 

In  areas  where  crops  of  grain  are  regularly  grown, 
and  more  especially  in  those  in  which  a  regular  rota- 
tion is  attempted,  brome  grass  may  come  anywhere  in 
the  rotation,  but  as  with  other  grasses,  a  stand  is  more 
assured  on  land  that  is  clean.  But,  if  not  smothered 
by  weeds  when  the  plants  are  young,  this  grass  has  more 
power  to  crowd  them  out  later  than  most  other  grasses. 
When  once  established,  if  not  broken  up  for  a  number 
of  years,  in  certain  of  the  prairie  soils  the  roots  will  fill 
these  so  completely  that  when  the  ground  is  ploughed 
the  furrow  slice  is  a  mass  of  roots  so  bound  together  that 
pulverization  cannot  be  secured  without  great  labor.  Be- 
cause of  this,  in  such  areas,  the  sod  should  be  ploughed 
before  it  became  so  filled  with  the  interlacing  roots. 
The  number  of  years  required  to  induce  such  a  condition 
will  vary  with  soils  and  with  the  precipitation.  Us- 
ually the  grass  may  be  cut  two  seasons  and  pastured 
one  before  the  sod  becomes  so  stiff  as  to  become  thus  dif- 
ficult of  pulverization.  But  when  it  does  occur,  it  is 
probable  that  rape,  or  flax,  or  buckwheat  sown  on  it 
would  aid  in  more  quickly  reducing  the  sod. 

In  all  arable  areas  deficient  in  rainfall,  where  this 


176  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

grass  flourishes,  it  may  be  turned  to  excellent  account 
in  supplying  the  land  with  humus.  In  areas  where  the 
soils  are  so  light  that  they  lift  with  the  wind,  it  may 
be  made  to  render  valuable  service  by  counteracting  this 
evil  through  the  binding  influence  of  the  roots.  Its  value 
for  both  uses  is  assuredly  very  great.  Where  Russian 
brome  grass  is  grown  in  such  areas,  it  should  therefore 
be  followed  by  such  crops  as  corn  or  the  small  cereal 
grains.  If  the  roots  are  so  many  that  a  good  seed  bed 
for  small  grain  cannot  be  made  without  too  much  labor, 
corn  should  be  the  first  crop  grown,  since  more  time 
would  be  available  in  preparing  the  seed  bed,  and  the 
cultivation  following  would  accelerate  decay  in  the  sod, 
which  would  then  be  in  good  condition  to  receive  some 
small  cereal  grain  crop  the  following  year.  In  areas 
where  corn  does  not  grow  well  or  is  not  needed,  winter 
rye  will  reduce  a  stiff  sod  more  quickly  and  effectively 
than  the  other  small  cereals.  The  beneficial  effects  of 
the  decaying  sod  mechanically  and  also  on  the  reten- 
tion of  moisture  would  thus  be  felt  for  a  number  of 
years,  how  many,  would  depend  on  the  degree  of  the 
precipitation.  It  would,  at  least,  be  felt  long  enough 
to  influence  favorably  the  growth  of  two  or  three  crops 
following. 

In  the  southern  states,  when  Russian  brome  grass  can 
as  a  rule  be  sown  with  much  greater  advantage  in  the 
autumn  than  in  the  spring,  it  may  be  made  to  follow 
any  crop  of  the  season  that  has  been  removed  sufficient- 
ly early  to  admit  of  properly  preparing  the  ground.  It 
may  therefore  follow  with  much  propriety  any  kind  of 
winter  cereal  as  wheat,  rye,  oats  or  barley,  grown  alone 


RUSSIAN  BROME  GRASS.  177 

or  in  combinations  for  the  grain  or  for  pasture ;  it  may 
in  turn  be  followed  by  any  crop  which  is  greatly  benefit- 
ed by  an  abundance  of  humus  in  the  soil.  The  roots  of  the 
grass  are  less  likely  to  possess  the  soil  so  completely  in 
the  South,  because  of  the  less  fertility  which  in  many 
places,  southern  soils  possess.  Decay  in  the  overturned 
sod  is  much  quicker,  hence  the  roots  are  not  so  likely  to 
possess  the  soil  to  the  extent  of  frustrating  the  effort  to 
grow  a  crop  successfully  upon  them  the  same  season  that 
they  are  broken. 

Preparing  the  8oil. — The  most  important  requisite 
in  preparing  the  ground  for  Russian  brome  grass  would 
seem  to  be  cleanliness.  As  the  young  plants  grow  slow- 
ly the  first  season,  if  not  sown  on  land  that  is  reasonably 
clean,  the  danger  is  imminent  that  weeds  will  over- 
shadow the  young  plants  to  their  injury,  if  not  to  their 
destruction.  It  may,  therefore,  be  sown  with  advan- 
tage after  a  crop  that  has  been  cultivated,  as  corn,  for 
instance,  or  on  ground,  that  has  been  summer  fallowed 
during  a  part  of  the  season  or  the  whole  of  the  same. 
In  northerly  latitudes  and  on  prairie  soils,  the  plan 
has  proved  satisfactory  which  ploughs  the  land  the  previ- 
ous autumn  and  then  uses  upon  it  occasionally  the  har- 
row or  cultivator  or  both,  until  the  seed  is  sown.  In 
this  way  the  ground  may  be  cleaned  sufficiently  to  admit 
of  sowing  the  grass  in  June,  but  it  is  more  common  on 
land  prepared  thus  to  sow  the  seed  from  August  onward 
according  to  the  climatic  conditions. 

When  this  grass  is  sown  along  with  a  crop  of  grain, 
the  preparation  of  the  soil  that  is  best  suited  to  the  needs 
of  the  grain  will  also  be  that  best  suited  to  the  needs  of 
Grasses — 12. 


178  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

the  grass.  This  means  that  as  a  rule  the  pulverization 
should  be  fine;  but  in  certain  soils  and  under  certain 
climatic  conditions,  it  is  not  desirable  to  have  the  ground 
pulverized  very  finely  when  the  seed  is  sown  in  the 
fall.  This  is  true  of  clays  north  or  south.  On  soils 
that  drift  it  is  better  to  sow  on  a  rough  surface  if  the 
seed  is  to  be  covered  with  the  harrow  to  bury  it  more 
deeply  and  also  to  have  it  rough  to  prevent  blowing. 
When  the  seed  is  sown  just  before  the  advent  of  winter, 
which,  in  northerly  latitudes  would  seem  to  be  a  good 
season  for  sowing,  under  certain  conditions  it  has  been 
recommended  to  sow  on  land  ploughed  but  harrowed  only 
slightly  or  not  at  all.  When  thus  sown  the  ground  may 
be  smoothed  with  the  harrow,  when  the  plants  have  be- 
come so  firmly  rooted  that  thfe  harrow  will  not  pull  them 
out. 

When  sowing  Kussian  brome  grass  on  the  open  range, 
for  the  purpose  of  supplanting  the  grasses  which  may 
grow  there,  the  land  is  first  disked  in  some  instances, 
especially  when  the  sod  is  at  all  dense.  In  other  in- 
stances, where  the  native  grass  plants  do  not  completely 
cover  the  ground,  the  seed  is  sown  without  any  prepara- 
tion having  been  given  to  the  land.  It  is  not  certain, 
however,  that  the  best  method  or  methods  of  thus  super- 
seding the  grasses  of  the  prairie  have  yet  been  ascer- 
tained. 

Deep  ploughing  has  been  recommended  in  certain 
areas,  when  preparing' the  land  ;  but  ordinarily  tin's  would 
not  seem  to  be  necessary,  unless  wliore  such  tillage  was 
practiced  to  insure  soil  moisture.  The  roots  of  Russian 
brome  grass  have  much  power  to  push  through  the  soil 


RUSSIAN  BROME  GRASS.  179 

and  also  down  into  it,  hence,  on  the  average  prairie  soil, 
such  deep  tillage  would  not  seem  to  be  specially  neces- 
sary, if  necessary  at  all,  in  preparing  the  land  for  this 
grass. 

Sowing. — Under  some  conditions  Russian  brome 
grass  may  be  sown  during  any  month  of  the  season  of 
growth.  Under  average  conditions,  however,  the  favor- 
ite season  for  sowing  is  the  early  spring,  especially 
when  sown  with  a  nurse  crop.  But,  in  the  northwestern 
provinces  of  Canada,  it  is  frequently  sown  in  June.  It 
is  also  frequently  sown  in  August  or  September,  on  land 
that  has  been  summer  fallowed.  There  is  usually  enough 
rainfall  in  these  months,  especially  in  June,  to  sprout  the 
seed.  It  also  grows  on  clean  land  and  makes  a  crop  the 
following  season.  In  the  southern  states,  when  sown  in 
the  autumn,  a  good  stand  is  more  assured  than  when 
sown  in  the  spring,  but  to  this  there  may  be  some  excep- 
tions. When  sown  thus,  the  plants  grow  during  much  of 
the  winter ;  whereas,  if  sown  in  the  spring,  hot  and  dry 
weather  following  might  prove  fatal  to  the  seed.  In 
areas  with  low  winter  temperature,  and  a  small  amount 
of  precipitation,  many  growers  prefer  sowing  the  seed  in 
the  autumn.  It  is  then  ready-  to  grow  in  the  early 
spring,  and  thus  get  the  full  benefit  of  all  the  moisture 
that  comes  at  that  season ;  when  sown  in  the  late  autumn 
a  full  crop  cannot  be  made  the  following  season ;  when 
sown  alone  in  the  upper  Mississippi  basin,  early  in  June, 
would  be  a  good  time  to  sow  the  seed  on  suitably  pre- 
pared land,  as  by  that  time  many  of  the  weed  seeds  in 
the  surface  soil  would  have  germinated  and  been  de- 
stroyed. But  when  thus  sown  it  would  be  necessary  in 


1  iO  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

some  instances  to  run  the  mower  over  the  ground  once 
or  oftener  the  same  season  to  keep  weeds  from  maturing 
seed. 

The  seed  has  more  commonly  heen  sown  by  hand 
than  hy  any  other  method.  It  does  not  feed  well  into 
the  ordinary  drill  tubes  alone  or  mixed  with  grain  unless 
perfectly  clean,  owing  to  the  chaffy  character  of  the 
seed.  But  it  would  seem  probable  that  the  seed  could  be 
sown  with  the  drill  by  mixing  it  with  some  heavy  sub- 
stance as  earth.  It  would  also  seem  probable  that  some 
form  of  hand  machine  would  be  introduced  in  the  near 
future  that  would  do  this  work  satisfactorily.  Sowing 
the  seed  by  hand  is  slow  and  tedious.  Owing  to  the 
lightness  of  the  seed,  only  a  narrow  cast  is  made  and  it 
can  only  be  sown  in  a  still  time.  There  is  the  further 
objection  that  the  seed  will  fall  unevenly,  unless  when 
sown  by  a  skilled  sower. 

Opinions  differ  widely  as  to  whether  Russian  brome 
grass  ought  to  be  sown  alone  or  with  a  nurse  crop.  This 
question  is  much  affected  by  locality  and  the  season  at 
which  a  crop  is  sown.  Where  the  rainfall  is  sufficient, 
and  when  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  early  spring,  ordi- 
narily it  ought  to  be  sown  with  a  nurse  crop,  as  if  sown 
alone,  weeds  will  probably  shade  the  grass  as  much  or 
more  than  a  nurse  crop  would,  unless  cut  back  with  the 
mower.  In  the  North,  winter  rye,  winter  wheat,  where 
it  can  be  grown,  or  any  of  the  small  spring  cereals,  as 
wheat,  oats,  barley  or  even  flax,  are  suitable  nurse 
crops.  The  least  suitable  is  oats,  because  of  the  leafy 
character  of  the  growth,  and  yet  oats  make  a  very  suita- 
ble nurse  crop  if  sown  quite  thinly  and  cut  for  hay  wliilo 


RUSSIAN  BROMB  GRASS.  181 

yet  immature.  In  the  southern  states,  any  of  the  winter 
cereals  will  answer  as  well  as  nurse  crops.  When  the 
rainfall  is  short  and  when  the  seed  is  sown  later  than 
the  early  spring,  it  is  more  commonly  grown  alone  so 
that  the  young  plants  may  have  the  full  benefit  of  all  the 
moisture  in  the  soil.  The  plants  are  delicate  when 
young,  in  the  sense  that  they  grow  slowly,  and  that  then 
they  are  easily  destroyed  by  dense  shade.  This  fact 
should  never  be  lost  sight  of  when  sowing  Russian 
brome  grass,  and  the  amount  of  seed  sown  in  providing 
the  nurse  crop  should  be  regulated  accordingly.  The 
harrow  is  generally  used  in  covering  the  seed.  A  mod- 
erate covering  is  preferred  in  moist  climates,  but  in  dry 
areas  and  light  soils  the  covering  should  be  deeper,  espe- 
cially when  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  spring. 

The  amount  of  seed  that  ought  to  be  sown  will  vary 
with  the  object  sought  from  sowing  it,  and  also  with 
soil  conditions.  When  wanted  for  pasture,  as  quickly 
as  the  same  can  be  provided  in  good  form,  more  seed  is 
required  than  when  hay  is  sought;  and  on  soils  low  in 
fertility  more  seed  ought  to  be  sown  than  when  the  con- 
ditions are  the  opposite.  Some  authorities  recommend 
sowing  as  much  as  30  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  a  seeding 
that  would  certainly  be  excessive.  A  sufficient  stand 
has  been  obtained  from  sowing  as  small  a  quantity  as  3 
pounds  per  acre,  but  not  until  the  second  year  after . 
sowing  the  seed.  As  the  tendency  is  ever  present  with 
Russian  brome  grass  to  thicken  from  season  to  season,  if 
the  plants  grow  too  thickly  at  the  first,  the  yield  of  seed 
is  lessened  even  the  first  season,  and  subsequently  the 
yield  in  hay  and  pasture  will  be  less  also  than  if  the 


182  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

plants  were  more  numerous.  When  seed  is  wanted  the 
season  after  sowing,  1  .to  12  pounds  per  acre  should 
suffice  on  average  soils;  To  produce  hay  the  year  after 
sowing  the  seed,  from  12  to  15  pounds  should  be  enough, 
and  for  pasture  15  to  18  pounds.  When  sown  in  com- 
bination with  other  grasses,  the  quantity  may  be  made  to 
vary  from  2  to  3  pounds,  upwards,  according  to  the  ob- 
ject sought. 

But  little  is  yet  known,  based  on  American  experi- 
ence, as  to  the  value  of  Russian  brome  grass  for  growing 
in  mixtures  to  make  permanent  pasture.  Since  it  is 
aggressive,  it  may  be  expected  ultimately  to  crowd  out 
nearly  all  other  kinds  of  grasses.  Kentucky  blue  grass 
is  probably  the  only  highly  valuable  pasture  grass  that 
would  not  ultimately  be  entirely  dispossessed  by  it,  and 
in  northerly  areas  where  the  conditions  are  highly  favor- 
able to  the  growth  of  the  Russian  brome,  even  blue 
grass  may  not  be  able  to  withstand  its  encroachments. 
In  Hungary  it  is  sometimes  grown  along  with  alfalfa 
and  some  Montana  experience  has  also  proved  reason- 
ably successful  in  growing  it  thus.  In  Manitoba,  how- 
ever, it  has  been  grown  successfully  with  timothy  in  such 
rotations  sowing  about  6  pounds  of  each  per  acre. 

Because  of  the  slow  growth  of  Russian  brome  grass 
when  it  is  young,  when  it  has  been  sown  with  a  nurse 
crop,  the  stand  secured  may  appear  feeble  in  the  autumn 
after  the  grain  has  been  harvested.  The  heavier  that 
the  growth  of  the  grain  has  been  and  the  drier  the 
autumn,  the  more  feeble  will  the  grass  appear.  Be- 
cause of  this,  the  temptation  sometimes  arises  to  bieak 
up  the  fit'ld,  under  the  impression  that  the  stand  of 


RUSSIAN  BROME  GRASS.  183 

grass  is  not  worlh  saving.  This  should  not  be  dons 
hastily  or  without  the  most  careful  examination,  as,  if 
the  plants  are  present  in  reasonable  numbers,  even 
though  small,  the  return  the  next  year  may  prove  quite 
satisfactory. 

Pasturing. — The  value  of  Russian  brome  grass  for 
pasture  will  depend  in  a  great  measure,  on  the  favorable 
or  unfavorable  character  of  the  conditions  for  growing 
the  grass.  On  northwestern  prairies,  it  will  furnish 
much  more  grazing  relatively  than  the  native  grasses  of 
the  prairie,  and  probably  more  than  any  of  the  other 
cultivated  varieties.  In  southern  areas  it  would  seem 
to  be  less  valuable  relatively,  but  in  these  its  relative 
adaptation  for  pasture  has  not  been  generally  proved. 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  in  these  it  will  lose  its  suc- 
culence in  prolonged  periods  of  dry  and  hot  weather,  as 
it  does  on  certain  of  the  western  ranges  until  awakened 
by  the  autumn  rains. 

This  grass  will  stand  close  grazing  better  than  many 
other  grasses,  because  of  its  inherent  vigor,  and  the 
character  of  the  root  growth,  but,  as  with  these,  it  will 
yield  much  more  pasture  when  it  is  not  closely  grazed. 
In  some  instances,  especially  on  sandy  land,  it  has  been 
known  to  receive  serious  injury  through  excessive  pas- 
turing, and  more  especially  when  grazed  thus  the  same 
year  that  the  seed  was  sown.  Ordinarily,  however,  it 
has  much  power  to  stand  close  grazing  without  suc- 
cumbing. The  aftermath  in  meadows  is  also  much 
more  abundant  than  from  many  other  grasses,  hence  it 
is  common  to  graze  it  down,  but,  when  thus  grazed,  the 
effect  will  doubtless  be  to  lessen  the  return  from  the  hay 


184  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

crop  the  following  season.  While  it  will  stand  severe 
tramping  better  than  many  other  kinds  of  grass  it  should 
not  be  forgotten  that  American  experience  with  refer- 
ence to  this  is  as  yet  but  little  in  evidence.  Its  greater 
value  for  pasture  compared  with  range  grasses,  arises 
not  only  from  the  earlier  period  when  it  is  ready  for  be- 
ing grazed,  the  larger  return  which  it  produces  and  the 
excellence  of  the  grazing  which  it  furnishes  in  the 
autumn,  but  also  from  its  high  palatability.  As  a  pas- 
ture it  has  probably  no  superior  in  its  own  special  do- 
main. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — When  Russian  brome  grass  is 
to  be  made  into  hay,  it  may  be  cut  from  the  stage  at 
which  it  is  fully  out  in  head  until  the  blossoms  disap- 
pear, according  to  the  use  that  is  to  be  made  of  it.  As 
in  the  case  of  timothy,  it  is  cut  at  a  somewhat  more  ma- 
ture stage  for  horses  than  for  cattle  or  sheep.  If  cut 
too  soon,  the  hay  will  be  lacking  in  body  and  weight. 
If  cut  too  late  it  will  be  woody.  But  in  instances  in 
which  the  seed  stalks  are  not  plentiful  (see  p.  185)  the 
injury  to  the  hay  from  deferred  cutting  is  much  less  than 
when  the  opposite  is  true.  A  favorite  time  for  cutting 
is  when  the  plants  are  first  coming  into  bloom.  Much  of 
what  has  been  said  as  to  the  mode  of  cutting  and  curing 
timothy  (see  page  Y2)  will  apply  also  to  the  cutting  and 
curing  of  Russian  brome  grass.  The  hay,  when  prop- 
erly cured,  is  eaten  with  a  relish  and  its  feeding  value 
is  much  akin  to  the  feeding  value  of  timothy.  The 
large  amount  of  leaf  growth  in  it  adds  much  to  its  pal- 
atability.  The  hay  is  usually  free  from  weeds,  espe- 


RUSSIAN  BROME  GRASS.  185 

cially  after  the  first  cutting,  as  there  is  a  tendency  in 
this  grass  to  crowd  out  weeds  when  once  it  is  established. 

The  yields  of  hay  vary  exceedingly  with  variations  in 
soils  and  in  seasons.  Ordinarily  the  best  yields  are  ob- 
tained from  the  first  cutting,  but  sometimes  the  second 
cutting,  that  is,  the  cutting  obtained  the  third  summer 
after  the  sowing  of  the  seed  is  more  productive  because 
of  the  thickening  of  the  grass  with  age.  Usually  only 
one  cutting  is  made  in  a  season,  but  the  aftermath  is 
generally  abundant.  After  the  second  cutting,  the 
yields  of  hay  usually  decrease  from  the  over-thickening 
of  the  grass.  The  average  crop  may  be  put  at  about  1^ 
tons  per  acre,  but  under  favorable  conditions  it  is  fully 
2  tons.  Four  to  5  tons  have  been  cut  from  an  acre  and 
again  the  yield  has  been  as  low  as  J  ton. 

Securing  Seed. — Russian  brome  grass  is  ready  for  be- 
ing harvested  about  three  weeks  subsequently  to  the 
stage  of  full  bloom,  but  this  will  vary  somewhat  with  the 
weather.  The  crop  is  sufficiently  mature  when  the  seed 
kernel  is  full  of  meat,  but  the  meat  in  the  same  is  still 
soft  and  pliable  like  rubber.  The  heads  have  then  as- 
sumed that  purple  glue  tinge  which  indicates  ripeness. 
It  should  be  cut  with  much  promptness  when  mature,  as 
the  seed  when  over-ripe  shatters  easily. 

Different  modes  of  harvesting  the  seed  have  been 
recommended.  Some  advocate  cutting  the  seed  crop 
with  the  binder.  It  is  set  so  high  as  to  cut  and  bind 
into  sheaves  the  seed  stems  that  rise  above  the  leaves, 
but  without  cutting  the  leaves  which  mass  so  thickly  for 
some  distance  above  the  ground.  The  sheaves  when  cut 
are  removed  and  put  up  in  shocks  until  dry,  but  they 


180  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

may  of  course  be  shocked  up  in  the  same  field.  The 
residue  of  the  grass  uncut  is  then  mowed  with  the  mow- 
er and  made  into  hay.  This  method  may  be  the  best 
to  follow  when  the  seed  stems  rise  up  thinly,  which  is 
apt  to  be  the  case  after  the  crop  has  been  cut  for  two  or 
three  successive  seasons. 

A  second  method  cuts  the  crop  and  cures  it  as  though 
it  were  being  cured  for  hay.  When  thus  managed,  the 
cutting  and  handling  of  the  crop  when  being  cured 
should  not  be  done  in  the  driest  and  hottest  part  of  the 
day,  to  avoid  undue  shelling.  This  method  should  only 
be  resorted  to,  at  least  in  climates  where  the  harvest 
weather  is  usually  good,  when  the  facilities  for  harvest- 
ing by  one  or  the  other  of  the  methods  given  are  not 
present. 

A  third  method  uses  a  stripper.  This  method  is  prob- 
ably a  good  one,  but  it  has  not  as  yet  been  much  prac- 
ticed. It  should  certainly  prove  an  expeditious  way  of 
getting  the  seed,  as  it  would  preclude  the  necessity  of 
threshing  the  crop,  and  there  would  seem  to  be  no  serious 
objections  to  it.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  as  with 
blue  grass  seed,  much  care  would  have  to  be  exercised 
in  drying  the  seed,  lest  its  germinating  power  should  be 
injured  through  overmuch  heating.  After  the  seed  had 
been  thus  removed,  the  crop  would  still  furnish  fairly 
good  hay  because  of  the  abundance  of  the  foliage  below 
the  seed  heads. 

A  fourth  method  cuts  the  crop  with  the  binder.  The 
sheaves  are  not  tightly  bound.  They  are  cured  in 
shocks,  preferably  in  those  that  are  long  rather  than 
round.  When  dry  the  crop  is  threshed  at  once  or  is 


RUSSIAN  BROME  GRASS.  187 

stored  away  in  mows  or  stacks  for  being  threshed  later. 
This  method  has  been  found  to  work  well,  especially 
with  crops  in  which  the  seed  stems  are  numerous. 

Russian  brome  grass  may  be  threshed  with  the  ordi- 
nary threshing  machine,  but  when  threshing  it,  the  wind 
has  to  be  nearly  or  entirely  shut  off.  It  is  cleaned  with 
the  ordinary  fanning  mill,  but  when  cleaning  it  thus, 
due  attention  must  be  given  to  the  amount  of  wind  used 
and  to  the  adjustment  of  the  sieves. 

The  yields  of  the  seed  vary  exceedingly.  Usually  the 
best  yields  are  obtained  from  the  first  cutting,  if  the 
plants  are  sufficiently  numerous.  If  not,  the  best  yields 
will  probably  be  obtained  from  the  second  cutting,  other 
things  being  equal.  Later,  the  yields  will  almost  cer- 
tainly decrease  because  of  the  thickening  or  matting  of 
the  grass.  The  best' yields  of  seed  up  to  the  present  have 
been  secured  in  the  prairie  provinces  of  the  Canadian 
Northwest,  in  North  Dakota,  in  the  more  northerly  of 
the  Rocky  mountain  valleys,  and  from  the  bench  lands 
of  the  range  states  south  from  the  Canadian  border.  As 
many  as  600  pounds  of  seed  have  been  secured  from  an 
acre  in  the  areas  specified,  but  300  to  400  pounds  would 
probably  be  an  average  from  crops  of  the  first  cutting. 

The  seed  of  this  crop  as  of  all  other  crops  not  long 
introduced  is  high,  but  it  may  be  obtained  by  those  who 
can  afford  to  wait,  without  much  outlay.  If  15  to  20 
pounds  of  seed  are  secured  and  sown  on  properly  pre- 
pared land,  the  individual  could  expect  the  next  year 
to  secure,  say,  400  pounds  of  seed  from  the  acre.  This 
would  sow  nearly  27  acres  using  15  pounds  to  the  acre. 
The  seed  crop  thus  grown  could,  if  necessary,  be  threshed 


188  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

with  a  flail,  and  in  many  instances  at  least,  the  seed 
thus  threshed  could  be  sown  in  the  chaff  with  positive 
advantage,  the  same  season  in  which  it  grew.  In  fact, 
under  certain  conditions,  it  could  be  sown  at  once. 

Renewing. — If  the  stand  of  Eussian  brome  grass  is 
unduly  thin  at  the  first,  it  may  be  improved  by  adding 
more  seed  in  the  autumn  and  covering  or  not  covering 
with  the  harrow  acccording  as  sound  judgment  may 
dictate.  Under  some  conditions  it  may  be  prefer- 
able to  add  the  seed  in  the  spring.  But  even  though 
the  stand  should  be  thin,  if  it  is  fairly  regular  it 
will  thicken  up  sufficiently.  But  its  behavior  in  this 
respect  is  much  influenced  by  soil  and  climate.  Where 
moisture  is  deficient,  it  does  not  thicken  to  nearly  the 
same  extent  as  under  conditions  the  opposite. 

This  grass  may  be  renewed  in  very  many  instances  by 
simply  ploughing  it  and  then  smoothing  the  surface  with 
the  harrow.  The  results  will  be  greatly  influenced, 
however,  by  the  way  in  -which  the  work  is  done.  In 
ploughing,  the  aim  should  be  to  cut  narrow  rather  than 
broad  furrows  and  to  lay  them  over  at  a  sharp  angle 
rather  than  flat,  and  to  plough  but  moderately  deep  as 
ploughing  is  done  in  the  locality.  The  preferable  time 
for  such  ploughing  is  when  the  ground  is  moist.  When 
thus  treated  the  grass  will  start  off  with  renewed  vigor. 
How  frequently  this  mode  of  renewal  may  be  practiced 
and  how  long  it  may  be  expected  to  prove  effective,  can- 
not be  stated  on  evidence  br-sed  on  American  experi- 
ence, but  there  would  seem  t<j  be  no  good  reasons  for  con- 
cluding that  it  would  not  succeed  indefinitely  or  at  least 
&>r  a.  long  time.  This  mode  of  renewal  would  seem  to 


RUSSIAN  BROME  GRASS.  189 

be  well  worthy  of  attention  on  the  part  of  farmers  and 
ranchmen  in  areas  wherein  agriculture  is  more  or  less 
dependent  on  the  successful  growth  of  this  grass.  The 
interval  between  the  sowing  of  the  seed  and  the  first  re- 
newal by  this  process  and  between  subsequent  renewals 
should  be  determined  by  the  necessity  for  the  same,  as 
evidenced  by  undue  matting  of  the  grass  accompanied 
by  a  deficiency  in  growth. 

Destroying  Russian  Brome  Grass. — In  some  localities 
some  difficulty  has  been  found  in  getting  rid  of  this 
grass  when  meadows  or  pastures  are  broken ;  especially 
is  this  true  of  rich  and  moist  soils.  Where  this  danger 
exists,  either  of  the  two  following  methods  will  prove 
effective: — First,  backset  the  sod  as  in  breaking  up  the 
prairie,  that  is,  plough  it  shallow  in  June  and  deeper 
later ;  or,  second,  plough  reasonably  deep  and  with  care, 
and  follow  with  a  well  cultivated  crop  of  corn.  But  it 
would  seem  to  be  correct  to  say  that  no  one  who  desires 
to  sow  this  excellent  grass  should  be  deterred  from  sow- 
ing it  from  fear  that  it  would  make  trouble  by  persist- 
ently remaining  in  the  soil. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

MEADOW  FESCUE. 

The  term  meadow  fescue  includes  any  one  of  the 
numerous  species  of  grasses  of  the  genus  Festuca.  The 
varieties  of  this  genus  are  numerous.  The  most  valua- 
ble of  these  are  Festuca  pratensis  and  Festuca  ovina, 
the  former  being  equally  valuable  for  grazing  and  fod- 
der, and  the  latter  for  grazing  only.  Meadow  Fescue 
(Festuca  pratensis)  sometimes  confusingly  referred  to 
as  Festuca  elatior  and  vice  versa  is  also  called  Tall  Fes- 
cue, Tall  Meadow  Fescue,  English  Blue  grass,  Randall 
grass  and  Evergreen  grass.  Festuca  pratensis  and  Fes- 
tuca elatior  are  really  two  varieties  of  Fescue.  Some 
consider  the  latter  as  the  species  and  the  former  as  the 
variety,  but  Festuca  pratensis  would  seem  to  be  more 
serviceable  to  American  conditions  than  the  other.  The 
terms  Tall  Fescue  and  Tall  Meadow  Fescue,  are,  or 
ought  to  be,  restricted  to  the  variety  Festuca  elatior.  In 
Virginia  meadow  fescue  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  Ran- 
dall grass.  In  Mississippi,  North  Carolina  and  some 
other  states  it  is  called  Evergreen  grass  from  the  green 
color  which  it  maintains  even  amid  the  snows  of  win- 
ter. 

Meadow  fescue  is  a  perennial  which  is  somewhat  slow 
in  coming  to  maturity.  It  is  by  far  the  most  important 
and  valuable  of  the  many  grasses  of  the  fescue  family. 


FJG.  9. 
MEADOW  FESCUE  (Festnca  finttcnsis). 

Tennessee  Experiment  Station. 


MEADOW   FESCUE.  193 

Especially  in  Europe  has  it  been  assigned  a  prominent 
place  in  producing  live  stock,  where  the  fescues  are  more 
numerous  and  important  than  in  America.  The  variety 
pratensis  grows  usually  to  the  height  of  about  2  feet. 
The  stems  are  round  and  smooth.  The  panicle  is  erect 
and  nodding,  and  somewhat  resembles  that  of  chess 
(Bromus  sacalinus).  The  leaves  are  fairly  numerous  and 
large.  The  roots  are  fibrous  and  go  down  deeply  into 
the  soil,  in  some  instances,  it  is  said,  as  deeply  as  those 
of  clover.  Compared  with  this  variety  Festuca  elatior 
is  considerably  larger,  taller  and  coarser,  sometimes 
reaching  the  height  of  4  and  even  5  feet.  The  leaves 
are  much  longer  and  broader,  some  of  them  attaining 
the  length  of  2  feet.  The  head  is  more  open  and  less 
erect,  but  is  more  numerously  flowered.  The  roots  are 
stronger  and  more  woody,  and  the  plants  grow  more  in 
tufts  like  those  of  orchard  grass.  But  since  the  distri- 
bution of  these  varieties  is  about  the  same  and  since  the 
conditions  of  growth  are  very  similar,  what  follows  with 
reference  to  distribution  and  growth  may  be  considered 
as  applying  equally  to  both. 

Meadow  fescue  grows  slowly  and  takes  two  or  three 
years  to  attain  to  a  maximum  of  production.  It  does 
not  grow  so  early  or  so  quickly  in  the  spring  as  some 
other  grasses,  but  it  continues  to  grow  far  on  into  the 
autumn  and  in  climates  sufficiently  mild  even  into  the 
winter.  It  comes  into  bloom  a  little  earlier  than  tim- 
othy. Like  orchard  grass  it:  has  considerable  adaptation 
for  growing  in  shady  places.  All  authorities  who  have 
written  upon  it  are  agreed  that  it  is  an  excellent  pas- 
jture  grass,  because  of  its  ability  to  grow  during  much 
^Grasses — 13. 


194  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

of  the  year,  because  of  its  ability  to  withstand  condi- 
tions, wet  and  dry,  warm  and  cold,  because  of  the  con- 
siderable degree  of  palatability  which  it  possesses  and 
because  its  nutritive  properties  rank  at  least  fairly 
high.  Because  of  its  permanency  in  conjunction 
with  the  good  qualities  named,  it  should  be  given 
a  foremost  place  among  grasses  sown  for  permanent 
pasture.  It  ranks  high,  also,  as  a  hay  plant.  Amid 
suitable  conditions  it  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  good 
hay  that  is  much  relished  by  live  stock,  but  when 
grown  for  hay  it  is  more  commcnly  as  a  factor  in  the 
crop  than  as  the  sole  crop,  owing  to  the  considerable 
period  which  it  requires  to  attain  to  a  maximum  of  de- 
velopment, it  is  better  adapted  to  meadows  of  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  permanency  than  to  those  of  short 
duration.  The  variety  elatior  is  less  well  adapted  for 
producing  hay  because  of  the  coarse  character  of  the 
stems  and  leaves  and  of  the  tendency  which  it  has  to 
tussock,  but  it  is  thought  that  it  produces  more  pasture 
than  the  other  variety. 

Meadow  fescue  is  relished  by  all  kinds  of  domestic 
animals  and  is  very  suitable  for  them.  In  America, 
however,  it  is  not  grown  very  often  alone  except  for 
seed,  hence  its  productive  value  for  pasture  or  hay  has 
not  been  so  fully  determined  as  that  of  some  other 
grasses.  From  Kentucky  and  Virginia  southward,  its 
relative  value  for  winter  grazing  ig  even  greater  than  for 
summer  grazing  owing  to  the  fresh  and  succulent  char- 
acter of  the  pasture  which  it  furnishes  at  that  season. 

Distribution. — Meadow  fescue  is  indigenous  to  Eu- 
rope and  western  Asia.  It  is  much  grown  in  Great 


MEADOW   FESCUE.  195 

Britain,  Lapland,  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  more  or 
less  of  it  is.  grown  in  all  the  intervening  countries  until 
the  Mediterranean  is  reached.  It  is  a  favorite  meadow 
and  pasture  grass  in  the  countries  specifically  designated 
and  it  is  grown  to  a  much  greater  extent  relatively  in 
these  than  in  North  America.  Although  introduced 
into  America,  it  is  thoroughly  at  home  on  this  conti- 
nent, and  may  be  grown  with  more  or  less  success  in 
some  part  or  parts  of  every  state  in  the  Union  and  of 
every  province  in  Canada. 

That  meadow  fescue  is  well  adapted  to  endure  low 
temperatures  is  well  attested  by  the  fact  that  it  grows 
so  well  in  Lapland  and  Norway.  That  it  is  well  able 
to  endure  warm  climates  is  witnessed  by  its  behavior  in 
the  south,  for  which  its  adaptation  is  considered  higher 
than  for  the  north.  But  it  should  be  noticed  that  its 
highest  value  in  the  south  is  found  in  cool  rather  than 
in  hot  weather.  It  grows  better  of  course  in  moist  than 
in  dry  climates  and  yet  it  is  able  to  endure  much 
drought  because  of  the  deep  feeding  of  the  roots. 

The  ability  which  this  grass  has  to  grow  and  to 
maintain  its  greenness  when  the  cold  is  not  too  ex- 
treme, is  one  of  its  most  valuable  features.  Because  of 
this  it  is  especially  valuable  as  a  pasture  plant  for 
autumn  and  winter  grazing  in  all  the  southern  states 
where  it  has  been  grown.  Its  value  for  such  a  use 
has  been  much  praised  in  Virginia,  the  Carolina?,  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  Mississippi  and  Kansas.  At  the  agri- 
cultural experiment  station  at  Kansas  it  has  been  tested 
for  more  than  twenty  years  and  as  a  result  has  been 
assigned  a  foremost  place  with  orchard  grass  in  adapta- 


196  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

tion  for  Kansas  conditions.  Its  behavior  in  furnishing 
hay  and  pasture  Las  also  been  favorably  reported  from 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  New  Jersey  and 
in  several  of  the  'New  England  states.  It  has  been 
recommended  by  high  authority  as  being  suitable  for 
Indiana,  and  there  would  seem  to  be  no  good  reasons 
why  it  should  not  be  equally  suitable  for  the  conditions 
of  the  neighboring  states.  In  the  states  bordering  on 
the  Mississippi,  except  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  it 
has  not  been  much  tested,  but  it  should  grow  fairly 
well  in  all  of  these.  In  the  semi-arid  states  it  should 
stand  dry  weather  better  than  some  other  grasses,  yet  it 
is  at  least  doubtful  if  it  has  any  important  mission 
for  these  in  the  purely  range  country,  but  where  winter 
wheat  will  grow  nicely  in  these  as  it  does  over  large 
areas  so  will  meadow  fescue.  In  the  more  northerly  of 
them  the  conditions  would  be  against  winter  grazing  in 
the  lines  on  which  it  is  conducted  in  the  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  states.  Meadow  fescue  will  doubtless  grow  well 
in  the  irrigated  valleys,  but  it  is  not  specially  needed 
in  these,  since  they  grow  alfalfa  and  clover  so  well. 
No  place  probably  in  the  United  States  or  indeed  in 
North  America  has  higher  adaptation  for  meadow  fescue 
than  the  strip  of  coast  land  along  the  Pacific  from  Cal- 
ifornia to  Alaska. 

Meadow  fescue  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  satis- 
factory grasses  grown  as  permanent  pasture  at  the  On- 
tario Agricultural  College  experiment  station  at  Guelph. 
It  was  not  only  one  of  the  most  abiding  but  also  one  of 
the  most  productive  of  these,  and  yet  as  a  pasture  or  a 
meadow  grass  it  is  not  much  grown  on  Ontario  farms  or 


MEADOW    FESCUE.  197 

indeed  on  farms  in  any  part  of  Canada.  It  is  not  well 
known  in  the  various  provinces  of  that  country,  al- 
though it  is  pretty  certain  that  it  could  he  grown  with 
profit  in  tillable  areas  from  Lake  Huron  to  the  Atlantic. 
In  the  northwestern  provinces  of  Canada,  Russian 
brome  grass  and  western  rye  grass  (Agropyrum  tene- 
rum)  are  likely  to  remain  higher  in  favor  than  meadow 
fescue.  Four  reasons  may  be  given  why  this  useful 
grass  is  not  more  generally  sown — first,  the  seed  is 
relatively  high ;  second,  it  is  frequently  adulterated  with 
one  of  the  rye  grasses,  which  it  very  much  resembles; 
third,  its  merits  are  not  universally  known ;  and,  fourth, 
it  takes  so  long  to  reach  a  maximum  of  production  that 
it  is  not  well  suited  for  being  grown  in  meadows  of 
short  duration. 

Soils. — Meadow  fescue  will  grow,  but  of  course  not 
equally  well,  in  a  great  variety  of  soils.  Although 
when  once  established  it  has  much  power  to  maintain  its 
hold  on  soils  lacking  in  moisture  during  at  least  a  por- 
tion of  the  year,  it .  will  grow  much  better  relatively 
where  considerable  moisture  is  present,  even  where 
the  land  is  annually  covered  by  the  overflow  of  rivers. 
It  is  best  adapted  to  good,  strong,  moist  loams  well 
stocked  with  the  elements  of  production,  and  underlaid 
with  a  subsoil  which  the  roots  can  easily  penetrate  to  a 
considerable  depth.  The  best  returns  have  been  obtained 
from  this  plant  when  grown  on  such  soils  in  states  which 
have  a  considerable  rainfall.  On  the  deposit  soils  of 
river  bottoms  it  has  also  proved  highly  satisfactory 
where  the  sand  element  in  these  has  not  been  too  pro- 
nounced. In  alluvial  bottom  lands  it  grows  luxuriantly 


198  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

at  present.  On  sandy  loams  it  grows  with  no  little 
vigor,  the  growth  being  modified,  of  course,  by  the 
character  of  these,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  humus 
soils  of  the  prairie  except  where  these  are  too  lacking 
in  density  and  moisture.  Although  sandy,  gravelly  and 
rocky  soils  are  not  high  in  adaptation  for  meadow  fes- 
cue, it  will  maintain  its  hold  on  these  and  produce  much 
grazing  where  the  moisture  is  ample  as  witnessed  in 
the  good  grazing  furnished  by  it  on  the  mountain  lands 
of  Tennessee.  Although  this  grass  grows  much  better  on 
slough  or  marsh  lands  that  are  drained,  it  will  succeed 
in  these  even  when  the  degree  of  saturation  during  a 
portion  of  the  year  is  considerable. 

Meadow  fescue  is  ill  adapted  to  lands  that  are  low  in 
fertility.  If  these  are  at  the  same  time  leechy,  the  adap- 
tation even  in  moist  climates  is  lessened  and  in  dry  cli- 
mates it  renders  growth  almost  prohibitory.  Nor  will 
it  grow  well  on  good  strong  soils  laden  with  plant  food 
when  the  rainfall  is  low  beyond  a  certain  degree,  as 
witnessed  in  the  semi-arid  belt ;  yet  it  will  endure  more 
drought  than  timothy,  as  observed  in  the  relatively  bet- 
ter returns  obtained  from  it  in  Eastern  Kansas,  Idaho 
and  Eastern  Washington. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Meadow  fescue  is  not  well 
adapted  to  short  rotations,  since  as  intimated  previously, 
it  takes  from  2  to  4  years  to  reach  that  point  when  a 
maximum  of  production  will  be  realized.  When  sown 
in  meadows  it  is  sown  only  in  those  that  are  to  be  mown 
for  several  years  in  succession  before  breaking  them 
up;  and  when  sown  in  permanent  pastures  it  ceases 
altogether  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term  to  be  a  rotation 


MEADOW   FESCUE.  199 

plant.  In  this  respect  it  will  occupy  about  the  same 
place  as  Kentucky  blue  grass,  and  much  that  was  said 
about  the  place  which  the  latter  occupies  as  a  rotation 
plant  may  apply  equally  to  meadow  fescue  (see  page 
89).  Like  all  grass  plants,  it  is  best  sown  on  clean 
land,  whatever  the  process  may  have  been  that  was 
adopted  in  cleaning  the  same,  and  is  followed  by  crops 
that  feed  eagerly  on  the  gathered  supplies  of  available 
plant  food  furnished  by  the  grass  roots  in  their  decay. 
These  include  the  small  cereal  grains,  corn,  the  non- 
saccharine  sorghums  and  rape. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  preparation  of  the  soil  for 
meadow  fescue  is  not  different  from  the  preparation  of 
the  same  for  several  other  grasses  that  are  being  dis- 
cussed. Usually  it  requires  a  seed  bed,  moist  and  finely 
pulverized,  but  there  may  be  instances,  as  on  the  light 
soils  of  the  prairie  so  light  that  they  lift  with  the  wind, 
when  a  rough  surface  would  be  preferable  to  a  smooth 
one.  There  may  be  other  instances  as  when  the  seed  is 
sown  in  the  autumn  when  a  surface  to  some  extent 
cloddy  would  be  preferable  to  the  same  too  finely  pul- 
verized; yet  again  there  are  instances  as  when  sown  in 
the  spring  on  loam  soils  in  which  pulverization  cannot 
be  too  fine  for  best  results.  Unless  where  the  soil  runs 
together  in  the  sense  of  impacting  or  washes  away, 
autumn  ploughing  aids  much  in  securing  a  fine  seed  bed 
in  the  spring. 

Sowing. — -The  time  or  times  at  which  meadow  fescue 
may  be  best  sown  will  depend  much  upon  the  locality. 
It  is  hardy,  hence  at  the  North  the  seasons  for  sowing  it 
are  about  the  same  as  for  sowing  timothy,  that  is,  during 


200  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

August  or  September,  and  in  the  spring  from  the  time 
the  ground  is  uncovered  until  the  small  cereal  grains 
have  been  sown.  In  the  South  it  is  usually  sown  August 
1st  to  November  1st.  As  with  timothy  in  the  North, 
when  sown  in  the  autumn  it  should  be  sown  early 
enough  to  secure  a  good  growth  in  the  plants  before 
entering  the  winter.  In  the  North  it  is  more  commonly 
sown  in  the  early  spring  and  on  ground  where  it  can 
be  covered  with  the  harrow.  In  the  South  it  is  of tener 
sown  in  the  fall. 

Like  the  seeds  of  nearly  all  grasses  except  timothy, 
it  is  usually  sown  by  hand,  but  it  is  practicable  under 
certain  conditions  to  sow  it  with  the  grain  drill  and 
with  the  hand  seed  sower  run  like  a  wheelbarrow  when 
sown  alone.  It  may  be  sown  before  the  grain  drill  on 
properly  prepared  land  or  after  it,  and  in  either  case  the 
harrow  should  follow  to  cover  the  seed  unless  in  climates 
that  are  quite  moist.  When  sown  before  the  drill  a 
more  complete  covering  is  secured. 

Because  of  the  slow  growth  made  by  the  young  plants, 
it  is  important  that  the  seed  shall  be  sown  with  a  nurse 
crop,  otherwise  weeds  will  have  to  be  mown  twice  or 
of  tener,  in  the  season.  Any  of  the  small,  cereals  may 
be  used  as  the  nurse  crop.  Winter  rye  and  winter  wheat 
are  the  most  suitable,  all  things  considered,  since  in 
these  it  may  be  sown  autumn  or  spring.  In  the  South 
winter  barley  is  a  good  nurse  crop  and  winter  oats  may 
also  be  used. 

Notwithstanding  the  value  of  this  grass  for  meadow 
and  for  pasture,  it  cannot  be  said  that  it  is  widely  sown 
for  either  purpose.  The  relative  slowness  with  which  it 


MEADOW   FESCUE.  201 

establishes  itself  probably  explains  wliy  it  is  not  more 
sown  for  hay.  The  great  extent  to  which  the  seed  is 
adulterated  by  those  of  the  more  short  lived  rye  grasses 
probably  furnishes  one  explanation  why  it  is  not  more 
sown  for  pasture.  For  either  purpose  it  is  almost  in- 
variably sown  with  other  grasses.  For  meadow  the  best 
single  grass  with  which  to  grow  it  is  timothy  in  the 
North,  since  the  two  ripen  nearly  at  the  same  time.  If 
clover  is  added,  alsike  is  preferable  to  other  varieties, 
since  it  ripens  later  than  the  medium  red  and  does  not 
smother  the  crop  with  which  it  grows  to  the  same  ex- 
tent as  rank  mammoth  clover  does.  These  three  should 
furnish  excellent  crops  of  hay  on  suitable  land,  although 
the  author  cannot  cite  any  instances  in  which  they  have 
been  grown  thus.  Eussian  brome  grass,  orchard  grass 
and  tall  oat  grass  would  not  be  so  suitable  to  grow  along 
with  it  for  meadow;  nor  would  medium  red  clover, 
since  all  three  mature  considerably  earlier. 

,  The  important  mission  of  this  grass  in  America 
is  in  growing  pasture  in  combination  with  other  grass- 
es and  more  especially  in  those  pastures  that  are 
abiding.  In  these  it  has  much  power  to  take  care 
of  itself,  though  crowded  when  once  it  is  established. 
It  will  be  found  more  valuable  relatively  in  pastures  in 
the  southern,  central  and  far  western  states  than  in 
those  north,  since  for  these  it  seems  to  have  higher 
adaptation  than  in  those  North,  especially  in  areas  with 
Kansas  and  Idaho  as  centres.  Along  with  tall  oat 
grass  and  orchard  grass  it  furnishes  good  pasture  not 
temporary  in  character  and  the  same  is  true  of  it  in 
certain  areas  of  the  South  where  it  fits  in  particularly 
well  with  orchard  grass  in  providing  such  pastures, 


202  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

since  both  have  considerable  permanency.  The  meadow 
fescue  readily  fills  the  space  between  the  tussocks  of  the 
orchard  grass. 

When  sown  alone  2  bushels  of  seed  or  28  pounds  is 
about  the  right  quantity  to  sow  per  acre  on  average  soils. 
Some  recommend  a  larger  amount.  When  sown  with 
timothy  for  hay  14  pounds  of  the  former  and  6  pounds 
of  the  latter  would  suffice ;  when  sown  with  alsike  clover 
and  timothy  7,  2  and  4  pounds  respectively  should  make 
a  suitable  mixture;  when  sown  for  permanent  pasture 
the  amount  of  seed  will  of  course  vary.  If  meadow 
fescue  and  orchard  grass  are  sown  together  to  provide 
such  pasture  about  a  bushel  of  the  seed  of  each  should 
be  used.  If  tall  oat  grass  is  added,  8  or  9  pounds  of  each 
of  the  three  should  be  enough.  If  sown  in  mixtures 
with  a  larger  number  of  grasses  it  would  not  seem  nec- 
essary to  sow  more  than  5  or  6  pounds  of  this  grass 
per  acre,  because  of  its  abiding  character  in  permanent 
pastures. 

Pasturing. — Meadow  fescue  stands  grazing  well  when 
it  is  once  set.  It  does  not  furnish  grazing  so  early  as 
some  of  the  other  good  grasses,  but  it  grows  better  than 
blue  grass  in  the  summer  and  as  previously  intimated, 
it  has  much  power  to  grow  in  cold  weather  and  also  to 
retain  its  genuineness.  It  grows  more  or  less  in  Mary- 
land, Virginia,  Tennessee  and  some  other  states  through 
much  of  the  winter;  hence,  it  furnishes  good  winter 
grazing  for  horses,  cattle  and  sheep,  but  more  especially 
for  horses  and  sheep,  since  these  can  graze  upon  it  though 
covered  with  snow,  both  pawing  down  to  it  through 
the  snow.  It  is  claimed  that  it  will  grow  thus  on  moun- 


MEADOW   FESCUE.  203 

tain  lands  in  the  South  higher  than  those  on  which  blue 
grass  is  found. 

For  temporary  pastures  meadow  fescue  should  not 
be  looked  upon  as  a  reliance,  since  these  would  be 
broken  up  before  the  grass  had  reached  the  limit  of 
capacity  to  produce.  But  few  grasses,  however,  if  in- 
deed any,  excel  meadow  fescue  for  permanent  pasture, 
where  the  conditions  are  at  all  favorable  to  its  growth. 
Its  duration  under  some  conditions  is  very  great.  One 
instance  is  on  record  in  Tennessee  in  which  this  grass 
has  furnished  good  grazing  for  50  years.  Whether  it 
would  endure  thus  long  in  northern  areas  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  well  established.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  it  will  survive  longer  in  southern  latitudes 
than  in  those  north  where  the  winters  are  stern. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Meadow  fescue  comes  into 
flower  a  few  days  earlier  than  timothy.  It  should  be 
cut  ordinarily  about  the  blossoming  stage,  but  not  quite 
so  early  for  horses  as  for  cattle  and  sheep.  The  method 
of  cutting  and  curing  is  about  the  same  as  that  adopted 
in  cutting  and  curing  timothy,  that  is,  it  is  cut  with 
the  mower  and  is  cured  in  the  winrow.  (See  p.  74.)  It 
makes  a  good  quality  of  hay.  The  yield  of  hay  ordinar- 
ily runs  from  1  to  2  tons  per  acre,  but  in  some  areas  it 
produces  much  larger  yields.  As  high  as  4  tons  have 
been  cut  per  acre.  Since  it  is  seldom  grown  alone  for 
hay,  its  value  for  market  purposes  does  not  appear  to  be 
well  established  in  this  country,  but,  since  it  weighs 
reasonably  well,  it  should  prove  at  least  a  fair  merchant- 
able hay.  When  the  seed  can  be  obtained  plentifully 
at  lower  rates  and  in  purer  form,  and  when  the  value  of 


204  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

this  grass  for  permanent  meadows  becomes  better  known 
more  of  it  will  be  sown. 

Securing  Seed. — Meadow  fescue  produces  seed  abun- 
dantly. The  chief  centres  of  seed  production  at  the  pres- 
ent time  in  the  United  States  are  Northeastern  Kansas 
and  Idaho.  It  is  also  grown  in  certain  areas  in  Missou- 
ri and  Nebraska,  but  not  so  extensively  as  in  the  areas 
named.  One  seed  firm  at  Lawrence,  Kansas,  handled 
50  car  loads  of  home  grown  seed  in  1902.  The  yields 
in  the  localities  named  average  about  200  pounds  per 
acre,  but  in  some  instances  they  run  from  300  to  400 
pounds.  The  first  two  or  three  seed  crops  are  the  most 
•productive,  but  where  the  weeds  and  other  grasses  are 
kept  out  seed  crops  that  should  be  remunerative  may 
be  taken  for  a  longer  period.  The  quality  of  the  seed 
grown  in  these  centres  is  most  excellent.  It  is  fortunate 
that  the  seed  supply  from  the  centres  named  is  increas- 
ing. It  will,  in  time,  doubtless  render  it  unnecessary  to 
import  seed,  much  of  which  in  the  past  has  been  so  large- 
ly adulterated  with  the  seed  of  perennial  rye  grass, 
sometimes  to  the  extent  of  75  per  cent.  -The  prejudice 
thus  begotten  against  sowing  this  grass  in  certain  quar- 
ters is  unfortunate  as  it  has  reacted  against  its  distribu- 
tion. 

Meadow  fescue  ripens  quickly  after  it  comes  into 
flower.  It  should  therefore  be  harvested  with  prompt- 
ness. There  is  no  better  way  of  harvesting  the  seed 
crop  than  by  cutting  it  with  the  binder  and  threshing  it 
with  the  ordinary  grain  thresher.  It  is  not  difficult  ta 
clean  the  seed  with  a  good  fanning  mill. 

Renewing. — Information  with  reference  to  renewing 


MEADOW   FESCUE.  -  /  205 

this  grass  based  on  American  experience  is  very  meagre. 
In  meadows  it  is  of  less  importance  than  in  permanent 
pastures  because  of  the  comparative  infrequency  of  the 
former.  In  permanent  pastures  in  which  it  is  desired  to 
give  this  grass  considerable  prominence  if  the  grazing  is 
not  close  the  heads  which  escape  the  grazing  will  pro- 
duce seed,  which,  when  it  falls  down,  will  in  due  season 
germinate  under  many  conditions  and  will  in  this  way 
increase  the  grass  in  the  pasture. 


CHAPTER  X. 

TALL  OAT   GRASS. 

The  term  oat  grass  means  any  cultivated  species  ot 
A  vena.  Tall  oat  grass  (Arrhenatherum  avenaceum)  is 
the  most  valuable  variety  of  the  oat  grass  family.  It  is 
also  known  by  the  names  Tall  Meadow  Oat  grass,  False 
Oat  grass,  Evergreen  grass,  Grass  of  the  Andes  and 
French  Rye  grass.  It  is  the  Avena  Elatior  of  Linnaeus. 
It  inclines  to  what  may  be  termed  the  tussock  habit  of 
growth.  Under  some  conditions  it  reaches  the  height 
of  7  feet  and  under  others  does  not  exceed  2  feet.  Un- 
der average  conditions  the  height  to  which  the  plants 
usually  attain  is  about  3  feet.  The  foliage  is  abundant 
but  is  somewhat  coarse.  The  stems  are  also  more  or 
less  coarse,  which  detracts  from  its  value  for  hay.  The 
panicle  is  long,  narrow  and  nodding,  and  leans  slightly 
to  one  side.  It  considerably  resembles  that  of  the 
common  oat,  but  is  more  slender  in  every  way.  The 
roots  are  long  and  fibrous,  going  down  deeply  into  the 
soil,  but  in  some  instances,  as  when  the  soil  is  not 
suited  to  the  needs  of  the  plants,  they  become  bulbous. 

Tall  oat  grass  is  a  perennial  in  its  habit  of  growth  and 
somewhat  long  lived.  The  seed  is  large  and  has  strong 
germinating  power.  The  plants  grow  rapidly  in  the 
early  spring.  They  furnish  much  pasture  in  the  north- 
ern states  in  May,  and  in  the  southern  states  as  early 


FIG.  10. 
TALL  OAT  GRASS  (Arrhenatherum  avenaceum) 

Tennessee  Experiment  Station. 


TALL  OAT  GRASS.  209 

as  April  or  even  earlier.  It  is  ready  for  being  cut 
for  hay  at  least  as  early  as  orchard  grass,  that  is  to  say 
in  June  in  the  northern  states  and  considerably  earlier 
in  the  southern  states.  After  being  cut  for  hay  it 
springs  up  vigorously  and  makes  an  abundant  aftermath. 
It  seeds  freely,  but  ripens  the  seeds  unevenly,  and  sheds 
them  very  quickly  when  ripe.  In  the  North  even  it  will 
make  two  crops  of  hay  under  quite  favorable  conditions 
and  in  the  South  three  are  frequently  obtained.  In  the 
North  from  two  to  three  cuttings  of  greed  food  may 
readily  be  obtained  from  this  grass  in  one  season  and 
in  the  South  even  a  larger  number  are  sometimes  made. 

When  sown  in  the  spring  it  may  frequently  be  cut  for 
hay^the  same  season.  In  the  autumn  it  again  grows 
freely  and  in  the  South  it  keeps  green  all  winter  ,and 
furnishes,  according  to  some  authorities,  more  pasture 
at  that  season  than  any  other  grass.  Since  the  roots  go 
down  deeply  into  the  soil  it  stands  drought  well,  and  is 
possessed  of  considerable  power  to  gather  plant  food, 
even  in  poor  soils.  Moreover  it  is  easier  to  secure  a 
stand  of  tall  oat  grass  than  of  almost  any  other  variety 
of  cultivated  grass. 

The  testimony  regarding  the  palatability  of  the  hay 
and  pasture  furnished  by  tall  oat  grass  is  by  no  means 
uniform.  Some  claim  that  both  pasture  and  hay  are 
much  relished  by  farm  animals.  Others  claim  that 
they  do  not  take  to  it  readily.  Amid  this  conflict  of 
statement  it  would  probably  be  correct  to  say  that  the 
palatability  of  the  pasture  or  hay  does  not  rank  high, 
owing  in  part  to  the  coarseness  of  both  leaves  and  stems, 
Grasses — 14. 


210  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

but  more  to  a  somewhat  bitter  taste  which  characterizes 
it.    In  nutritive  properties  it  ranks  at  least  medium. 

The  contrast  is  somewhat  striking  between  American 
and  English  testimony  with  reference  to  this  grass.  The 
former  speaks  encouragingly  as  to  its  value  as  a  culti- 
vated grass.  The  latter  is  pretty  generally  of  such  a 
character  as  to  discourage  its  growth,  and  this  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  it  is  extensively  grown  in  France  and 
other  countries  in  western  Europe.  Sir  J.  B.  Laws, 
after  discussing  it,  evidently  in  an  impartial  manner, 
concludes  that  its  value  is  questionable.  English  opin- 
ion with  regard  to  it  would  seem,  to  be  influenced  by  the 
large  number  of  the  other  cultivated  grasses  which  can 
be  grown  there,  some  of  which  are  in  several  respects 
superior  to  tall  oat  grass  for  English  conditions.  Fur- 
thermore, tall  oat  grass  prefers  a  climate  not  too  moist. 

Distribution. — Tall  oat  grass  is  common  in  Europe 
and  also  in  western  Asia.  It  is  probably  indigenous  to 
both  pf  these  continents.  It  was  introduced  into  this 
country  from  Europe  and  probably  many  years  ago.  It 
has  long  been  grown  in  Virginia  and  in  certain  portions 
of  ISTew  England  it  was  cultivated  to  some  extent  as  ear- 
ly as  the  first  quarter  of  the  last  century  when  it  was 
valued  somewhat  highly,  more  especially  because  of  the 
early  and  rapid  growth  which  it  makes  in  the  spring. 

It  is  a  hardy  grass  and  can  endure  much  heat  and 
cold.  Its  adaptation  for  southern  conditions  would 
seem  to  be  much  higher  than  for  those  in  the  North,  but 
this  probably  arises  more  from  congeniality  in  the  soil 
conditions  than  from  those  of  climate.  It  will  grow  well 
in  a  climate  that  is  moist,  as  is  evidenced  bv  its  be- 


TALL  OAT  GRASS.  211 

havior  in  France,  but  it  grows  at  its  best  under  condi- 
tions of  both  climate  and  soil  that  are  not  over  moist. 
An  over  moist  climate  is  also  much  adverse  to  the  prop- 
er preservation  of  the  hay  made  from  this  grass. 

Tall  oat  grass  though  not  much  grown  in  the  northern 
states,  is  susceptible  of  a  wide  distribution  throughout 
the  republic.  Many  good  words  have  been  spoken  in  its 
favor  in  the  South  and  West.  In  some  of  the  southern 
states  it  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  the  cultivated 
grasses.  As  previously  intimated  it  has  been  grown 
successfully  for  many  years  in  Virginia.  In  Georgia  it 
has  been  given  first  place  among  the  valuable  grasses. 
In  Nebraska,  though  not  very  extensively  grown,  it  is  in 
good  repute  and  in  Idaho  it  is  grown  considerably  both 
on  the  upland  and  along  with  alfalfa  on  irrigated  land. 
Coming  northward  it  has  done  well  on  certain  of  the 
sandy  soils  of  Michigan  and  in  some  areas  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. It  is  not  probable  that  this  grass  will  be  grown 
to  a  very  great  extent  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains  and 
north  of  the  fortieth  parallel,  because  of  the  success 
with  which  other  grasses  may  be  grown  in  nearly  all  of 
the  area  named  that  are  considered  superior.  Never- 
theless, in  the  light  soils  found  in  certain  areas  of 
Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  other  states,  this  grass  should 
be  further  tested.  For  such  soils  it  has  this  advantage 
over  Russian  brome  grass,  that  it  germinates  more 
quickly  and  will  produce  much  more  abundantly  the 
season  that  it  is  sown.  In  the  semi-arid  belt  it  will  grow 
better  than  almost  any  other  variety,  unless  it  be  the 
Russian  brome,  but  in  much  of  this  areu  the  conditions 
are  too  dry  even  for  tali  oat  grass.  In  nearly  all  the 


212  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

southern  states  it  grows  more  readily  probably  than 
any  cultivated  grass  that  does  not  make  trouble  by 
persistently  remaining  in  the  soil.  The  food  produced 
by  it  in  the  South  is  usually  much  more  than  from  an 
equal  area  in  the  North.  In  the  southwestern  states 
it  can  be  grown  in  but  few  localities  without  irrigation 
because  of  drought.  But  it  would  seem  to  have  consid- 
erable adaptation  for  the  dry  portions  of  certain  of  the 
northern  mountain  states,  as  Washington,  Idaho  and 
Oregon.  But  even  in  these  it  is  not  likely  to  be  so  much 
grown  as  meadow  fescue,  because  of  some  superior  qual- 
ities possessed  by  the  latter. 

In  Canada  there  would  seem  to  be  no  very  large  place 
for  tall  oat  grass.  In  the  provinces  from  Lake  Huron 
eastward,  other  grasses  with  superior  qualities  grow  so 
well  that  the  necessity  for  it  is  not  felt,  although  it 
could  be  grown  successfully  in  parts  of  all  of  these 
provinces.  In  the  provinces  west  from  Lake  Superior 
it  would  seem  that  it  has  not  been  much  tested,  but  it  is 
not  likely  that  in  these  it  will  supplant  Russian  brome 
grass,  the  qualities  of  which  are  in  some  respects  su- 
perior. More  especially  is  this  true-  of  the  latter  with 
respect  to  palatability,  permanency,  and  the  extent  to 
which  it  fills  the  soil  with  vegetable  matter. 

Soils. — Tall  oat  grass,  though  more  indifferent  to 
soils  than  some  other  grasses,  will  nevertheless  grow 
much  better  on  some  soils  than  others.  The  soils  best 
adapted  to  growing  it  are  those  that  are  somewhat 
dry,  porous  and  sandy  or  gravelly  in  texture.  As  the 
roots  feed  deeply,  it  is  important  that  the  subsoil  shall 
be  porous.  Whatsoever  the  character  of  the  surface 


TALL  OAT  GRASS  213 

soil,  therefore,  this  grass  ought  not  to  be  sown  where 
a  hard  pan  subsoil  comes  up  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  The  favorite  soils  for  tall  oat  grass  are  those 
that  are  sandy  in  texture  and  yet  possessed  of  enough  of 
loam  to  furnish  food  for  free  growth  in  the  plants,  and 
that  are  moreover  underlaid  with  a  porous  subsoil,  pref- 
erably clay.  It  will  grow  well  in  the  alluvial  soils 
of  river  bottoms  when  sandy  in  character  and  not  sur- 
charged with  moisture.  But  it  will  also  grow  reason- 
ably well  on  light  sandy  soils  though  underlaid  with 
sand  or  gravel,  unless  where  the  conditions  are  extreme- 
ly dry.  It  will  even  grow  reasonably  well  on  gravelly 
soils  under  similar  conditions.  Its  adaptation  for  the 
soils  of  the  Rocky  mountain  areas  is  relatively  high  as 
it  is  also  for  much  of  the  light  soil  found  in  the  South. 
On  the  vegetable  soils  of  much  of  the  prairie  it  also 
behaves  well,  as  shown  by  experience  in  growing  it  in 
Iowa  and  Kansas,  more  especially  when  these  are  not 
so  light  as  to  lift  with  the  wind.  Stiff  clays  are  not  well 
adapted  to  the  production  of  this  grass,  and  on  slough 
soils  several  of  the  cultivated  grasses  will  grow  much 
better.  Where  these  are  undrained  it  would  not  be  wise 
to  try  to  grow  it  on  them.  Nor  does  it  grow  well  on  soils 
otherwise  favorable  to  its  development  when  unduly  sat- 
urated with  water  during  any  considerable  portion  of 
the  year. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Since  tall  oat  grass  makes  a 
strong  growth  the  first  season  that  it  is  sown,  and  since 
it  has  also  considerable  power  to  maintain  its  hold  upon 
the  soil,  it  is  adapted  to  both  short  and  long  rota- 
tions. It  may  be  sown  to  provide  hay  or  pasture  for 


214  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

but  one  or  two  seasons  or  it  may  be  sown  alone  or  along 
with  other  grasses  to  provide  pasture  that  is  to  endure 
for  a  number  of  years.  As  with  all  other  grasses  it  is 
best  sown  on  a  clean  soil,  consequently  in  the  rotation 
it  should  naturally  follow  crops  that  have  been  cultivated 
and  kept  clean  during  the  season  of  growth.  But  since 
it  has  much  power  to  grow  while  the  plants  are  yet 
young,  it  can  fight  its  own  battle  better  than  some  other 
grasses,  should  it  be  necessary  to  sow  it  on  soil  not 
well  cleaned.  Especially  would  this  be  true  if  the  weeds 
in  these  soils  were  annuals,  as,  subsequently  to  the  cut- 
ting of  the  first  crop  the  oat  grass  could  be  so  dealt  with 
as  to  prevent  these  from  re-seeding. 

Tall  oat  grass  could  be  followed  by  almost  any  crop 
that  would  grow  in  the  locality,  but  it  would  be  prefera- 
ble to  follow  it  with  a  crop  that  requires  much  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil  in  an  easily  accessible  form  to  grow 
it  at  its  best,  as  corn,  the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  po- 
tatoes and  certain  kinds  of  garden  produce;  also  the 
small  cereals  non-leguminous  in  character.  In  Britain 
one  form  of  oat  grass  known  as  the  bulbosum,  is  difficult 
to  get  out  of  the  soil  when  the  sod  is  broken,  but  no  dif- 
ficulty of  this  nature  occurs  with  tall  oat  grass. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  preparation  of  the  soil  for 
tall  oat  grass  is  essentially  the  same  as  for  other  grasses 
that  have  been  discussed.  North  or  south,  east  or  west, 
the  aim  should  be  to  have  a  clean  seed  bed.  North  or 
south,  simply  cultivating  or  disking  and  then  harrowing 
the  land  after  a  crop  that  has  been  cultivated  will  be  a 
sufficient  preparation  for  receiving  the  seed,  whether 
sown  fall  or  spring.  When  the  oat  grass  is  sown  at  either 


TALL  OAT  GRASS.  215 

of  the  seasons  just  named  it  will  usually  be  found 
preferable  to  defer  sowing  until  time  has  been  given  for 
the  sprouting  of  many  of  the  weed  seeds  in  the  surface 
soil.  But  sowing  should  not  be  too  long  deferred  in 
either  case,  lest  dry  weather  should  destroy  the  young 
plants  in  the  first  instance,  and  harsh  weather  should 
do  the  same  in  the  second.  When  sown  with  a  nurse 
crop  the  preparation  of  soil  that  is  most  suitable 
for  the  nurse  crop  will  also  be  most  suitable  for  the 
tall  oat  grass.  This  will  mean  that  on  nearly  all  soils 
the  finer  the  pulverization  for  spring  sowing  the  bet- 
ter, but  that  for  autumn  sowing  it  is  not  always  ad- 
vantageous to  have  a  very  fine  seed  bed.  Since  tall  oat 
grass  is  a  large  seed  and  has  strong  germinating  power, 
it  will  make  a  stand  under  conditions  that  would  be 
fatal  to  some  grass  plants  that  are  more  delicate  when 
young,  but  with  this  as  with  all  other  plants,  the  labor 
expended  in  preparing  a  suitable  seed  bed  will  be  wisely 
expended. 

Sowing.— Tall  oat  grass  may  be  sown  north,  south, 
east  or  west,  in  the  autumn  or  the  spring.  On  suitable 
soils  it  will  probably  endure  the  cold  of  winter  as 
well  as  timothy,  when  sown  in  the  fall,  but  when  thus 
sown  it  should  be  in  the  early  autumn,  that  the  plants 
may  be  strong  before  the  arrival  of  winter.  Dr.  D.  L. 
Phares  claims  that  below  parallel  30  it  may  be  sown 
with  safety  from  November  1st  onward  to  the  middle  of 
December.  In  the  South  especially,  it  is  usually  consid- 
ered preferable  to  sow  after  the  fall  rains  begin,  more 
particularly  September  or  October.  When  sown  thus 
early,  full  crops  may  be  reaped  the  following  year.  But 


216  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

it  may  also  be  sown  in  March  and  April  and  furnish  a 
good  cutting  of  fodder  the  same  season.  In  the  North 
the  seed  will  usually  he  sown  the  same  time  as  winter 
wheat  or  rye;  it  will  usually  be  sown  with  one 
or  the  other  of  these  crops,  if  sown  in  the  autumn.  In 
the  spring  the  seed  may  be  sown  at  the  same  time  as  the 
small  cereal  grains  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  since 
it  will  more  commonly  be  sown  with  these,  but  it  may 
also  be  sown  later  if  desired. 

Tall  oat  grass  may  be  sown  as  already  virtually  in- 
timated with  any  of  the  small  cereal  grains.  But  in 
seasons  of  good  growth  the  oat  grass  sometimes  grows 
so  strong  as  to  hinder  the  yields  of  the  grain.  Espe- 
cially is  this  result  likely  to  follow  when  it  is  sown 
with  winter  wheat.  The  value  of  the  wheat  straw  in 
such  instances  is  greatly  enhanced,  but  it  may  be  at  too 
much  of  a  sacrifice  to  the  grain.  The  feeding  value  of 
the  straw  of  winter  rye  would  thus  also  be  considerably 
enhanced,  but  it  may  be  at  too  great  a  sacrifice  of  the 
rye.  The  feeding  value  of  the  winter  rye  straw  would 
be  considerably  increased  without  so  much  injury  to 
the  grain  yield  as  in  the  case  of  wheat.  When  sown 
with  winter  barley  or  winter  oats,  a  good  fodder  crop 
of  the  two  should  be  produced  the  following  spring. 
It  may  also  be  grown  in  some  localities  with  either  of 
the  rye  grasses. 

This  grass  is  usually  sown  by  hand,  more  especially 
when  sown  in  the  chaff ;  since  the  seed  is  large  it  is  not 
difficult  to  sow  it  thus.  It  should  be  covered  with 
the  harrow  when  thus  sown,  but  it  does  not  require  to  be 
so  deeply  covered  as  grain.  Where  the  seed  is  clean  it 


TALL  OAT  GRASS.  217 

may  be  sown  along  with  grain,  but  to  this  method  of 
sowing  there  is  the  objection  that  frequently  it  buries 
the  seed  too  deeply. 

For  producing  hay,  tall  oat  grass  may  be  sown  with 
orchard  grass  and  medium  red  clover,  as  they  are  ready 
for  cutting  about  the  same  time.  It  is  also  sometimes 
sown  with  alfalfa,  but  when  thus  sown  it  is  rather  to 
lessen  the  tendency  in  the  alfalfa  pasture  to  produce 
bloat  than  to  increase  the  yield  of  the  pasture.  It  may 
of  course  be  sown  alone  to  provide  pasture,  but  is 
usually  sown  in  conjunction  with  other  grasses.  It  is 
more  frequently  sown  for  pastures  in  permanent  mix- 
tures than  in  any  other  way.  When  sown  alone,  not  less 
than  two  bushels  of  clean  seed,  24  pounds,  ought  to  be 
used,  but  when  grown  for  seed  a  somewhat  less  quantity 
will  suffice.  In  the  chaff  the  quantity  ought  to  be  con- 
siderably increased.  When  sown  with  orchard  grass 
one-half  the  quantity  should  suffice;  when  sown  with 
red  clover  one-third  of  the  amount ;  when  sown  for  per- 
manent pasture  usually  3  to  5  pounds  will  suffice  but  the ' 
amount  of  seed  required  will  of  course  vary  with  the 
object  sought. 

Pasturing. — There  is  considerable  conflict  in  opinion 
with  reference  to  the  value  of  this  grass  for  pasture. 
English  testimony  on  this  point  is  in  the  main  unfavor- 
able while  American  testimony  is  in  the  main  favorable. 
The  latter  testimony  in  some  instances  speaks  enthusi- 
astically, probably  too  much  so  with  reference  to  its 
value  for  pasture.  The  strong  points  in  its  favor  are, 
its  early,  quick  and  continuous  growth.  A  chief  weak- 
ness consists  in  the  bitter  taste  which  characterizes  it 


218  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

and  which  docs  to  some  extent  lessen  its  palatability.  If 
sown  in  the  early  spring  it  will  produce  pasture  the  same 
season.  The  aftermath,  after  cutting  it  for  hay  or 
seed  is  also  abundant.  Its  highest  value  for  pasture, 
however,  is  found  in  the  South,  in  some  parts  of  which 
it  may  he  grazed  all  the  winter.  Some  consider  it 
the  best  pasture  grass  for  winter  which  grows  in  the 
South.  In  the  North  this  grass  is  not  likely  to  be  grown 
to  any  considerable  extent  to  provide  pasture  unless  in 
permanent  pastures,  since  other  pasture  grasses  grow 
there  which  are  considered  superior.  Even  in  perma- 
nent pastures  it  is  not  so  enduring  as  some  other  grasses. 
But  in  the  central  states  and  in  some  parts  of  the  west 
where  it  is  grown  in  conjunction  with  orchard  grass 
and  some  other  grasses  its  value  for  pasture  is  rela- 
tively higher. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Tall  oat  grass  is  ready  for 
being  harvested  for  hay  very  early  in  the  season.  Even 
in  Ontario,  Canada,  it  should  be  cut  for  hay  sometime 
between  the  middle  and  end  of  June.  It  should  be  cut 
promptly  when  the  blossoms  begin  to  come  out  freely, 
as  it  rushes  rapidly  to  maturity  and  soon  loses  much  in 
palatability  and  in  relative  digestibility.  It  is  of  course 
cut  with  the  mower,  and  may  be  handled  and  cured 
much  the  same- as  timothy  (see  page  72).  But  in  cur- 
ing it,  every  reasonable  effort  should  be  made  to  protect 
it  from  rain  or  heavy  dews,  as  it  very  easily  takes  injury 
from  either  of  the  sources  named.  It  is  not  difficult  to 
cure  after  it  has  been  cut  for  seed.  A  reasonably  good 
crop  of  hay  can  be  obtained  from  it,  even  as  far  south 
as  the  Ohio  river3  while,  south  of  that  line,  it  is  not  un- 


TALL  OAT  GRASS.  219 

common  to  cut  two  crops  of  liay  in  one  season.  The 
yield  of  hay  may  be  set  down  as  running  from  1  to  3  tons 
per  acre  as  the  soils  vary  on  which  it  is  grown  and 
also  as  the  season  admits  of  cutting  one  or  two  crops. 

Testimony  regarding  its  value  for  hay  is  conflicting. 
Some  growers  think  well  of  it.  They  claim  that  it  is 
more  soft  and  palatable  than  timothy,  for  instance.  The 
first  claim  is  correct,  but  because  of  this  it  would  be  less 
valuable  for  market  uses.  The  second  does  not  general- 
ly hold  good,  and  because  of  the  great  promptness  nec- 
essary in  cutting  and  curing  it  the  difficulty  of  curing 
any  considerable  area  of  it  in  best  form  is  greatly  en- 
hanced. 

Securing  Seed. — Tall  oat  grass  seeds  freely.  The 
seeds  begin  to  ripen  in  from  six  to  twelve  days  from  the 
time  of  blossoming.  The  length  of  the  interval  is  much 
influenced  by  the  weather,  but  it  is  always  short.  The 
seeds  on  the  top  of  the  heads  begin  to  ripen  first  and 
as  soon  as  these  show  indications  of  falling  off  the 
cutting  should  not  be  delayed  for  a  single  day  or  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  seed  may  be  lost.  The 
delay  of  only  a  few  days  in  harvesting  has  resulted  in 
the  entire  loss  of  the  seed  crop. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  apparent  that  not 
only  promptness  but  much  care  must  be  exercised  in 
harvesting  the  crop,  otherwise  much  of  the  seed  will  be 
lost.  One  of  the  best  methods  of  cutting  is  to  set  the 
binder  high  so  as  to  cut  off  the  stems  above  the  mass  of 
the  lower  leaves,  and  to  shock  the  sheaves  thus  made  in 
long  rather  than  in  round  shocks,  until  dry.  These 
may  then  be  drawn  on  racks  covered  with  some  kind  cf 


220  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

cloth  or  canvas  to  catcli  the  seed  that  shells.  The  seed 
may  be  threshed  with  a  common  threshing  machine,  but 
certain  special  attachments  to  the  same  facilitate  the 
work  and  prevent  the  loss  of  seed.  The  seed  being  rela- 
tively large  is  more  easily  separated  from  the  chaff  by 
winnowing  than  the  seed  of  certain  other  grasses.  When 
the  seed  crop  is  harvested  the  residue  of  the  crop  left  un- 
cut may  then  be  cut  and  made  into  hay.  The  seed  crop 
may  also  be  harvested  by  setting  the  binder  so  low  as  to 
cut  the  entire  crop.  But  to  harvest  it  thus  would  consid- 
erably prolong  the  period  necessary  to  cure  it  sufficient- 
ly for  threshing,  which  would  probably  result  in  the  loss 
of  much  seed,  and  the  labor  of  threshing  would  also 
be  considerably  increased.  The  seed  weighs  12  pounds 
to  the  bushel.  The  yield  runs  from_10  to  20  bushels  per 
acre.  Certain  of  the  lands  in  the  Palouse  country  in 
Washington  now  furnish  seed  of  an  excellent  quality. 

Renewing. — American  experience  in  the  renewal  of 
this  grass  either  in  pastures  or  for  meadows  is  not  plen- 
tiful. The  very  meagre  records,  however,  which  bear 
upon  this  question  show  that  it  responds  readily  to  top 
dressings  with  farmyard  manure.  Reasoning  from  gen- 
eral principles,  it  would  seem  to  be  easy  of  renev/al  on 
congenial  soils,  since  it  readily  produces  seed.  The  seed 
sheds  easily  and  the  germinating  power  of  the  seed  is 
good.  Where  the  stand  for  meadow  or  pasture  has 
become  too  thin,  therefore,  it  would  seem  reasonable  to 
suppose  that,  adding  more  seed,  fall  or  spring,  but  more 
particularly  in  the  early  fall,  and  cohering  the  same 
by  plentiful  harrowing  would  produce  renewal  in  the 
crop.  In  some  situations  also  where  the  soil  and  cli- 


TALL  OAT  GRASS.  221 

matic  conditions  are  both  highly  favorable,  renewal  may 
possibly  be  brought  about  by  grazing  in  a  way  that  will 
admit  of  the  falling  of  seed  on  the  ground  where  it  has 
matured.  In  permanent  pastures  mixed  in  character, 
and  in  which  some  of  the  other  grasses  are  more  aggres- 
sive, it  would  not  be  easily  possible  to  renew  tall  oat 
grass. 


CHAPTER  XL 

MEADOW   FOXTAIL. 

Meadow  Foxtail  (Alopecurus  pratensis)  is  a  grass 
plant  that  has  attained  much  popularity  in  England  and 
also  in  some  other  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  In 
appearance  it  bears  no  little  resemblance  to  timothy,  but 
the  leaves  are  shorter  and  the  heads  also  are  shorter, 
broader,  softer  and  more  velvety.  The  whole  plant  is 
more  smooth  and  soft  than  timothy.  Moreover  it  is 
ready  for  being  grazed  much  earlier  than  timothy.  It 
also  comes  into  flower  several  weeks  earlier  than  that 
plant. 

This  perennial  grass  in  its  habit  of  growth  is  consid- 
erably like  timothy.  The  plants  grow  singly  and  dis- 
tinct and  when  not  too  crowded  each  throws  up  several 
spikes,  but  when  overcrowded  many  of  the  plants  will 
not  come  into  head  at  all.  While  the  height  attained  va- 
ries much,  the  average  height  may  be  put  at  from  18  to 
24  inches,  but  in  rich  situations  the  stems  may  attain 
the  height  of  3  feet.  The  leaves  are  quite  numerous  and 
the  spikes  are  from  2  to  4-  inches  long  and  about  one- 
four!  h  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  root  is  short  and 
creeping,  but  it  has  considerable  power  to  retain  its 
hold  upon  the  soil.  It  grows  very  quickly,  especially 
early  in  the  season,  and  is  one  of  the  first  grasses  to 
furnish  pasture.  At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College 


FIG.  ii. 
MEADOW   FOXTAIL   (Alopccurus   pmtensis.} 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


MEADOW  FOXTAIL.  225 

experiment  station  the  heads  appeared  in  some  seasons 
before  the  end  of  May,  or  earlier  than  those  of  hlue 
grass.  In  Tennessee  they  sometimes  appear  early  in 
April.  In  favorable  situations  it  grows  up  quickly 
again  after  being  grazed  and  also  after  being  sown  for 
hay,  but  in  somewhat  dry  conditions  as  in  some  parts  of 
the  Mississippi  basin  it  behaves  differently. 

Meadow  foxtail  is  much  relished  by  all  kinds  of 
stock,  whether  grazed  or  fed  as  hay.  It  is  not  only  pal- 
atable, but  its  abundant  leaf  growth  and  softness  make 
it  grateful  to  animals  which  feed  upon  it  But  it  is 
slow  to  become  established,  hence  it  is  not  well  adapted 
for  short  rotations.  It  will  rather  be  grown  in  pastures 
and  meadows  more  or  less  permanent  in  character. 
Where  the  conditions  are  just  right  for  its  growth,  it 
is  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  permanent  pasture. 

Distribution. — Meadow  foxtail  is  a  native  of  Europe. 
It  has  higher  adaptation,  however,  for  those  parts  of 
that  continent  in  which  the  climate  resembles  that  of 
England.  Authorities  agree  as  to  its  high  value  for  per- 
manent grazing  in  Britain,  where  it  forms  one  of  the 
principal  grasses  in  such  pastures.  It  has  long  been  in 
favor  in  that  country.  In  1824  Sinclair  states  that  it 
constituted  part  of  the  produce  of  all  the  richest  pas- 
tures that  had  come  under  his  notice  in  Lincolnshire, 
Devonshire  and  in  the  vale  of  Aylesbury.  It  also  grows 
in  western  Asia  and  northern  Africa.  It  is  not  indigen- 
ous to  America,  nor  can  it  be  said  that  it  has  obtained 
a  very  extensive  foothold  in  any  part  of  the  same. 

While  this  plant  is  fairly  hardy  it  is  not  well  adapted 
to  extreme  conditions  of  heat  or  cold,  drought  or  exces- 
Grasses — 15. 


226  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

•sive  wet.  It  grows  best  in  a  climate  moist  and  cool, 
moister  than  much  of  the  climate  of  the  Mississippi 
basin  and  cooler  than  that  of  the  southern  and  south- 
western states,  unless  in  such  portions  of  the  same  as 
are  elevated.  It  is  also  a  grass  that  succeeds  well  under 
irrigation,  hence  there  may  yet  be  a  place  for  it  in  the 
mountains  of  the  West,  although  from  the  nature  of  the 
production  there  that  place  is  likely  to  be  limited. 

This  grass  has  been  grown  more  or  less  in  the  New 
England  states  and  those  adjacent  and  its  adaptation  for 
these  has  been  commended.  Notwithstanding  it  has 
been  but  little  grown  in  a  large  way.  The  inference 
would  seem  just,  therefore,  that  it  is  not  more  extensive- 
ly grown  for  the  reason  that  some  other  grasses,  notably 
blue  grass,  has  been  found  better  adapted  to  the  condi- 
tions in  these  states.  The  assumption  will  also  proba- 
bly be  found  correct  that  in  the  elevated  areas  of  the 
Allegheny  mountain  region  southward  from  New  Eng- 
land it  may  be  made  to  render  good  service  in  perma- 
nent pastures.  West  of  the  Cascade  mountains  it  should 
also  grow  well  in  Washington  and  Oregon.  In  other 
parts  of  the  United  States  the  conditions  would  seem 
to  be  of  a  character  not  highly  favorable  to  the  growth 
of  this  grass. 

In  Canada  it  is  not  likely  to  come  into  much  promi- 
nence. It  will  grow  reasonably  well  in  Ontario  and  the 
provinces  eastward,  but  not  sufficiently  well,  apparently, 
to  make  it  prominent  among  economic  pasture  grasses. 
At  the  Ontario  experiment  station  at  Guelph  it  proved 
considerably  less  satisfactory  in  permanent  pasture  than 
meadow  fescue  and  tall  oat  grass.  It  is  not  likely  to 


MEADOW  FOXTAIL.  227 

have  any  important  mission  in  Manitoba  and  the  coun- 
try westward  to  the  Rocky  mountains,  but  it  may  yet 
render  substantial  service  in  certain  parts  of  British 
Columbia. 

Soils. — All  authorities  agree  in  representing  that 
meadow  foxtail  will  thrive  best  on  a  rich,  moist,  deep, 
strong  soil,  with  an  underlying  subsoil  porous  and  yet 
moist.  It  will  probably  grow  best  on  rich,  calcareous 
loams  and  rich  sands  when  thus  underlaid.  Richness 
and  moistness  are  important  essentials  in  the  soils  in 
which  it  grows,  and  linked  with  these  there  should  be 
more  or  less  of  friability.  In  Britain  it  has  given  good 
results  on  land  more  or  less  springy  at  certain  seasons. 
It  has  high  adaptation  for  rich  porous  soils  that  can  be 
subjected  to  irrigation.  It  has  been  claimed  that  it 
will  grow  on  any  soil  except  the  driest  sands  and  gravels, 
but  the  claim  does  not  hold  good  except  where  moisture 
is  abundant  as  in  the  climate  of  Great  Britain.  In  the 
Mississippi  basin  its  growth  is  not  altogether  satisfac- 
tory on  the  loose  soils  of  the  prairie,  though  these 
should  abound  in  the  elements  most  essential  to  plant 
growth.  On  sands  and  gravels  in  the  dry  portions  of 
the  West  it  would  probably  not  succeed  at  all,  until  the 
irrigated  mountain  valleys  are  reached.  Even  in  Brit- 
ain it  does  not  well  maintain  itself  on  soils  dry  beyond  a 
certain  degree. 

Place  in  tlie  Rotation. — Since  meadow  foxtail  is  slow 
in  becoming  established,  and  since  it  has  the  power  to 
maintain  itself  for  many  years  without  failing,  it  is  not 
essentially  a  rotation  plant.  It  cannot  be  used  at  all 
in  short  rotations.  Its  special  mission  is  to  furnish  per- 


228  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

manent  pasture  and  in  a  less  degree  permanent  meadow. 
When  these  meadows  and  pastures  are  broken,  however, 
it  should  be  followed  as  in  the  case  of  other  grasses  by 
crops  that  luxuriate  in  decaying  vegetable  matter  such 
as  the  small  cereal  grains,  corn  and  potatoes.  It  is  espe- 
cially important  that  this  grass  shall  be  sown  on  a  sur- 
face made  clean  by  the  processes  of  cultivation,  because 
of  the  long  time  that  it  takes  to  become  established. 
Otherwise  weeds  will  crowd  and  smother  the  plants. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  preparing  the  soil  for  mead- 
ow foxtail,  fineness,  firmness,  moistness,  richness,  and 
cleanness  should  be  sought,  especially  the  conditions 
last  named.  The  plants  being  delicate  at  the  first  grow 
slowly,  hence,  unless  the  conditions  are  quite  favorable 
when  this  grass  is  sown  alone .  it  is  much  liable  to  be 
smothered  with  weeds ;  when  the  soil  is  not  naturally  rich 
it  should  be  fertilized  with  reasonably  well  decomposed 
farmyard  manure  or  by  applying  artificial  fertilizers 
particularly  such  as  are  reasonably  rich  in  nitrogen. 
When  sown  with  other  grasses  to  provide  permanent 
pasture  the  preparation  that  will  be  suitable  in  making 
a  seed  bed  for  such  pastures  will  also  be  suitable  for 
meadow  foxtail.  (See  p.  385.) 

Sowing. — The  seed  of  meadow  foxtail  may  be  sown  in 
the  autumn  or  in  the  spring  in  climates  not  so  stern  as 
to  preclude  autumn  sowing.  In  the  New  England  and 
middle  states  it  is  better  to  sow  -in  the  spring  and  early 
in  order  to  take  advantage  of  all  the  moisture  of  the 
season.  In  the  southern  states  and  beyond  the  Cascade 
mountains  it  may  be  sown  in  the  autumn,  preferably  as 
soon  as  the  autumn  rains  come. 


MEADOW  FOXTAIL.  229 

The  seed  is  very  light,  weighing  only  five  pounds 
to  the  bushel  when  sown  in  the  chaff  in  which  form  it  is 
usually  sown,  consequently  it  can  only  be  sown  by  hand. 
When  sown  in  permanent  mixtures  the  seed  is  of  course 
mingled  with  the  seeds  of  at  least  such  of  the  other 
grasses  in  the  mixture  as  call  for  hand  sowing. 

When  sown  alone  for  meadow  or  for  seed,  it  is  prob- 
ably better  to  so  .7  it  with  than  without  a  nurse  crop,  but 
the  latter  must  not  be  of  a  character  to  form  a  dense 
shade.  This  can  be  regulated  when  sowing  with  any  of 
the  small  cereal  grains  by  sowing  them  more  or  less 
thinly  according  to  the  kind  of  the  grain.  If  the  seed 
is  sown  without  a  nurse  crop  much  attention  should  be 
given  to  keeping  weeds  so  cut  back  that  they  will  not 
crowd  the  grass  nor  mature  seeds. 

When  sown  alone  authorities  claim  that  not  less  than 
3  bushels  per  acre  should  be  used  when  sown  in  the 
chaff.  If  the  seed  was  of  the  best  this  would  seem  to 
be  an  excessive  quantity,  as  according  to  Flint,  an  ounce 
contains  76,000  seeds,  but  for  various  reasons  it  is  not 
easy  to  secure  good,  reliable,  pure  and  fresh  seed,  hence 
under  ordinary  conditions  it  may  be  well  to  sow  the 
quantity  named.  As  with  timothy  the  plants  do  not 
thicken  when  once  set,  hence,  liberal  sowing  at  the  first 
is  a  necessity.  When  sown  to  provide  permanent  pas- 
ture the  amount  of  seed  to  use  will  vary  with  the  prom- 
inence to  be  given  to  this  grass  in  the  pasture.  As  the 
plants  are  feeble  when  young  and  therefore  much  liable 
to  be  overshadowed  by  those  that  are  more  vigorous  a 
liberal  use  of  seed  would  be  advisable  in  permanent  pas- 
tures. It  should  not  be  necessary,  however,  to  sow  more 


230  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM, 

than  5  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  in  any  instance,  and 
seldom  necessary  to  sow  so  much.  From  2  to  3  pounds 
of  good  seed  should  furnish  many  plants  in  the  mixture. 
For  various  reasons  it  is  not  easy  to  secure  really  good 
seed.  This  no  doubt  accounts  in  part  at  least  for  the 
unsatisfactory  results  that  have  frequently  followed 
the  sowing  of  this  grass  under  American  conditions. 
The  high  price  of  the  seed  has  also  heen  against  its 
extensive  use. 

Pasturing. — The  high  value  of  meadow  foxtail  in 
producing  pasture  under  conditions  favorable  to  its 
growth  cannot  he  questioned.  Its  earliness,  permanency, 
persistency  in  growth  and  high  palatability  recommend 
it  for  such  a  use.  Moreover  it  withstands  cropping  well. 
It  is  these  qualities  which  have  made  it  a  favorite  pas- 
ture grass  in  the  permanent  pastures  of  Britain  and 
more  especially  in  the  sheep  grazing  districts.  While 
it  may  be  cropped  down  quite  early  in  the  season  at 
which  time  it  grows  with  much  vigor,  it  does  not  grow 
so  well  later,  hence  it  is  much  better  to  sow  it  with 
other  grasses  when  sowing  it  for  pasture.  Since  it  lux- 
uriates on  rich  soil  it  is  peculiarly  responsive  to  dress- 
ings of  fertilizer  in  various  forms. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Although  frequently  grown  for 
hay  in  Europe,  it  is  questionable  if  this  grass  will  ever 
become  highly  popular  as  a  hay  plant  under  American 
conditions,  since  where  the  conditions  are  most  favor- 
able to  its  growth  in  this  country  they  are  also  quite 
favorable  for  the  growth  of  timothy,  which  is  king 
among  the  hay  plants  in  America.  It  is  very  light,  com- 
pared with  timothy  and  is  lacking  in  what  may  be 


MEADOW  FOXTAIL.  231 

termed  "body,"  that  is  substance,  firmness  and  weight. 
The  slowness  with  which  it  matures  also  so  far  unfits  it 
for  a  hay  crop. 

It  should  be  cut  for  hay  when  in  bloom  as  then  it 
is  claimed  the  plants  are  possessed  of  a  maximum 
amount  of  nutrition.  When  in  full  bloom  a  field  of 
meadow  foxtail  is  handsome  to  look  upon.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  hay  has  a  higher  nutrition  than  timothy.  It 
may  be  cut  and  harvested  in  the  same  way  &s  timothy. 
(Seep.  72.) 

Securing  Seed. — The  author  has  not  been  able  to 
obtain  any  information  with  reference  to  harvesting 
the  seed  crop  under  American  conditions.  The  seed 
used  in  this  country  would  seem  to  be  all  or  nearly  all 
imported.  Much  of  it  is  also  adulterated  with  velvet 
grass  (Holcus  lanatus)  or  with  rye  grass.  The  seed  crop 
ripens  unevenly.  Some  of  the  heads  are  approaching 
ripeness  while  other  heads  are  still  in  flower.  The 
seed  crop  is  also  said  to  be  peculiarly  liable  to  injury 
from  insects  and  also  blight.  Moreover  it  is  not  easy  to 
thresh  and  prepare  for  market.  These  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  procuring  seed  explain  in  part  at  least  why  the 
seed  is  high. 

Renewing. — When  this  grass  is  sown  for  meadow  and 
the  stand  is  imperfect  it  would  probably  be  better  to 
refit  the  land  and  sow  again  than  to  add  seed,  without 
thus  preparing  the  soil,  as  the  young  plants  are  unable 
to  flourish  in  soil  where  the  conditions  are  not  highly 
favorable.  The  same  reasoning  will  apply  in  the  main 
to  the  renewal  of  the  pastures. 


CHAPTEK  XII. 

GRASSES  USEFUL   BUT  DIFFICULT   OF  ERADICATION. 

In  this  chapter  three  grasses  will  be  discussed  which 
are  now  almost  universally  looked  upon  as  weeds.  These 
are  Quack  grass  (Agropyrum  repens),  Johnson  grass 
(Sorghum  halapense)  and  Crab  grass  (Panicum  San- 
guinale).  All  three  are  possessed  of  much  economic 
value  and  yet  they  are  so  difficult  of  eradication  that 
they  have  become  in  a  sense  the  dread  of  the  farmers  in 
localities  into  which  they  have  been  introduced,  In 
the  judgment  of  the  author,  they  should  never  be  sown 
on  land  that  is  to  be  tilled  again.  However,  there  are 
localities  where  they  have  become  so  entrenched  that 
it  may  be  the  part  of  wisdom  so  to  manage  them  that 
the  highest  return  possible  will  be  secured,  rather  than 
going  to  the  expense  of  eradicating  them.  In  other  in- 
stances  and  generally  they  should  be  given  no  rest  by 
those  who  cultivate  the  soil  until  eradication  is  com- 
plete. In  the  hope  that  some  light  may  be  thrown 
upon  the  difficult  and  perplexing  problem  of  dealing 
with  these  in  a  manner  at  once  intelligent  and  effective, 
these  grasses  will  be  considered  separately  and  with 
some  minuteness. 

QUACK   GRASS. 

Quack  grass  (Trilicum  or  agropyrum  repens)  is  prob- 
ably more  frequently  designated  Couch  grass  by  those 


QUACK  GRASS.  235 

who  have  written  with  reference  to  it,  but  the  tendency 
now  is  to  call  it  Quack  grass.  It  is  also  known  by  the 
names  Twitch,  Quitch,  Squitch,  Witch,  Scutch,  Quake, 
Dog,  Durfee,  Chandler,  Fin's,  Eye  or  Creeping  Wheat 
grass.  Dogs  occasionally  eat  of  the  leaves,  since  with 
them  it  acts  medicinally  as  an  emetic,  hence  the  name 
Dog  grass.  The  terms  Eye  and  Wheat  grass  have  doubt- 
less arisen  from  the  resemblance  of  the  plants  to  those  of 
rye  and  wheat.  It  varies  much  and  is  closely  allied  to 
varieties  that  are  not  so  persistent  in  the  habit  of  retain- 
ing a  hold  upon  the  soil. 

This  perennial  grass  thickens  very  quickly  in  the  soil 
where  it  once  gains  a  foothold,  and  to  the  extent  of  be- 
coming so  matted  or  sodbound  that  the  yield  of  pasture 
or  hay  is  seriously  lessened  when  the  grass  is  undis- 
turbed by  cultivation.  This  result  arises  from  the  pe- 
culiar character  of  the  root  growth.  The  strong,  stiff 
creeping  root-stocks  or  rhizomes  branch  out  in  every 
direction  and  so  completely  fill  the  soil  that  other 
grasses  or  weeds  cannot  grow  in  the  same.  The  roots 
are  numerously  jointed  and  at  each  joint  is  a  bud  capa- 
ble of  producing  a  fresh  plant.  The  plants  also  grow 
from  seed.  The  stems  grow  from  1  to  3  feet  in  height, 
the  average  being  l£  to  2  feet.  The  heads  or  spikes  are 
rather  slender  and  usually  straight,  bearing  considerable 
resemblance  to  those  of  wheat.  The  leaves  are  of  a  dark 
green  shade.  They  bear  considerable  resemblance  to 
those  of  timothy  near  the  ground,  but  they  are  larger  and 
stronger  and  of  a  darker  green. 

The  good  qualities  of  quack  grass  may  be  summed  up 
as  follows:  1.  It  will  grow  more  or  less  well  in  almost 


236  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

any  kind  of  soil.  2.  It  is  easily  introduced  and  when 
once  established  will  endure  indefinitely,  since  it  can 
withstand  excessive  cold  or  heat,  drought  or  wet  to  a 
remarkable  degree.  3.  It  pushes  up  quickly  in  the 
spring,  grows  abundantly  until  matured,  makes  much 
aftermath  when  mown  and  grows  up  freely  in  the  late 
autumn.  4.  It  is  much  relished  as  pasture  by  all  kinds 
of  live  stock,  especially  if  grazed  before  the  plants  be- 
come woody,  and  produces  as  much  good  hay  as  timothy, 
when  cut  in  season,  and  more  nutritious  in  character.  5. 
It  crowds  out  nearly  all  kinds  of  weeds  where  it  grows. 
6.  It  may  be  made  to  render  much  service  in  binding 
soils  along  gullies  and  embankments.  And  V.  Though 
it  may  tend  to  lessen  the  fertility  of  soils  when  pastured 
for  successive  years,  yet  when  buried  in  the  soil  it  exerts, 
in  many  instances,  a  favorable  influence  on  the  same 
mechanically. 

Notwithstanding  these  good  qualities,  the  author  de- 
sires to  say  with  all  possible  earnestness,  that  this  grass 
should  not  be  sown  on  arable  farms  or  at  least  on  such 
portions  of  them  as  are  to  be  tilled,  for  the  reason  that 
it  hinders  cultivation;  lowers  the  yields  in  the  crops, 
and  requires  great  labor  to  eradicate  it  when  this  may 
be  desired.  Where  it  may  be  legitimately  grown  is 
discussed  later.  (See  p.  238.)  It  also  adds  greatly  to 
the  labor  of  tillage  by  the  toughness  of  the  sod  which  it 
forms.  This  makes  the  land  difficult  to  plough.  Be- 
cause of  the  extent  to  which  the  roots  fill  the  soil,  it  is 
even  more  difficult  to  provide  a  loose  seed  bed  than  to 
plough  the  land ;  because  of  the  extent  to  which  the  roots 
fill  Ihe  soil,  it  is  even  more  difficult  to  provide  a  loose 


QUACK  GRASS.  237 

seed  bed  than  to  plough  the  land,  and  because  of  the 
vigor  with  which  it  grows  among  grain  crops,  it  more 
or  less  reduces  the  yields.  The  methods  of  destroying 
it  are  discussed  below.  (See  page  245.) 

Distribution. — Quack  grass  is  native  to  Europe.  In 
Great  Britain  and  other  countries,  it  has  long  been  pro 
scribed  by  the  farmers  because  of  the  great  labor  which 
it  has  caused ;  because  of  its  persistent  presence  in  cul- 
tivated fields.  When  it  was  introduced  into  this  country 
is  not  known.  There  is,  however,  a  species  of  grass  much 
like  it  which  is  native  to  certain  parts  of  the  far  west- 
ern plains  and  which  is  there  regarded  as  a  good  pasture 
grass. 

Quack  grass  flourishes  best  in  a  climate  that  is  tem- 
perate and  moist  and  yet  it  will  grow,  but  of  course  with 
much  less  vigor,  in  a  climate  both  warm  and  dry.  But 
it  will  grow  better  in  temperatures  that  are  moderately 
cool  than  in  those  which  are  hot. 

It  will  grow  in  almost  any  part  of  the  United  States 
which  it  is  possible  to  cover  with  a  mantle  of  vegetation. 
It  would  seem,  however,  to  grow  more  vigorously  in  the 
northern  and  central  states  than  in  those  southward.  It 
has  spread  to  a  greater  extent  probably  in  the  prairie 
states  in  the  upper  Mississippi  basin  than  elsewhere, 
but  for  many  years  it  has  also  given  trouble  to  the  farm- 
ers of  New  England. 

In  Canada  this  grass  will  also  grow  with  great  vigor 
in  all  areas  where  the  soils,  when  tilled,  will  grow  cereal 
grains.  But  nowhere  in  that  country  does  it  grow  with 
more  vigor  than  in  the  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Que- 


238  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

bee,  since  in  these  both  the  soil  and  climatic  condi- 
tions are  exceedingly  favorable  to  its  growth. 

Soils. — As  implied  in  what  has  already  been  stated, 
quack  grass  will  grow  in  almost  any  kind  of  a  soil.  But 
it  also  has  its  favorite  soils.  It  grows  probably  in 
greatest  luxuriance  in  clay  loam  soils,  moist  and  friable, 
but  it  also  grows  with  much  vigor  on  the  black  loam  soils 
of  the  prairie  so  largely  made  up  of  decayed  vegetation. 
It  grows  with  much  persistency  even  in  stiff  clays.  In 
rich  lands  it  luxuriates  and  also  in  the  alluvial  soils  of 
river  bottoms.  In  sands  and  gravels  low  in  fertility  it 
can  fight  the  battle  of  existence,  but  from  these  it  is 
much  more  easily  dislodged  than  from  soils  rich  and 
friable. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — No  place  can  or  should  be  as- 
signed to  such  a  plant  in  any  regular  rotation  because 
of  the  trouble  which  it  gives  in  being  removed  from 
the  soil.  It  would  not  be  wise  even  to  sow  it  in  pas- 
tures mixed  in  character  which  are  intended  to  be  per- 
manent as  it  would  certainly  crowd  out  all  or  nearly 
all  the  other  sorts  because  of  its  aggressive  character. 
But  the  author  is  by  no  means  convinced  that  it  should 
never  be  sown.  It  may  be  wise,  in  some  instances,  to 
sow  it  on  infertile  sands  too  poor  to  sustain  other  grasses 
in  good  form.  There  may  also  be  a  place  for  it  on  cer- 
tain lands  in  the  semi-arid  region  east  of  the  Rocky 
mountains,  especially  in  such  of  them  as  can  be  broken 
by  the  plough.  It  would  seem  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  this  grass  would  furnish  much  more  food  from  a 
given  area  when  managed  as  described  below  (see  p. 


QUACK  GRASS.  239 

242),  than  is  now  obtained  from  the  grasses  which  at 
present  occupy  the  soil. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — As  applicable  to  cultivated 
farms,  it  is  not  necessary  to  discuss  this  question;  as 
on  the  cultivated  portions  of  these  the  seed  of  quack 
grass  should  not  be  sown.  But  if  it  should  be  de- 
sired to  sow  the  same  on  parts  of  the  semi-arid  range 
country  when  it  is  not  expected  that  the  soil  shall 
ever  be  regularly  tilled  there  can  be  no  question  but 
that  a  stand  of  the  grass  would  be  more  quickly  obtained 
on  ploughed  land  than  on  the  unbroken  sod.  Whether 
on  such  sod  the  seed  would  grow  the  author  has  not 
been  able  to  ascertain,  but  the  chances  are  that  some 
of  the  plants  would  obtain  a  hold  if  the  seed  were  sown 
in  the  fall ;  when  thus  started,  even  though  the  plants 
were  thin  and  scattered,  the  habit  of  growth  in  the  grass 
would  justify  the  conclusion  that  they  would  spread  to 
the  extent  of  occupying  all  the  land.  It  is  also  ques- 
tionable, if  under  those  conditions,  the  plants  would 
ever  become  so  thick  and  matted  in  their  growth  as  in 
climates  with  sufficient  rainfall. 

This  grass  may  also  be  sown  on  sands  too  low  in  fertil- 
ity for  regular  cropping  and  on  gravelly,  stony  and 
rocky  places  which  never  can  be  tilled. 

Sowing. — This  grass  will  doubtless  grow  sown  fall  or 
spring,  but  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  seed.  Because  of  the 
weedlike  character  of  the  grass,  many  seedsmen  do 
not  keep  it  in  stock,  as  it  should  not  be  sown  on  lands 
that  grow  other  crops.  When  the  seed  is  sown,  there- 
fore, of  necessity  it  will  be  without  a  nurse  crop.  After 
a  seed  bed  has  been  prepared,  where  this  is  practicable, 


240  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

the  seed  can  best  be  sown  by  hand  and  covered  with  the 
harrow.  Hand  sowing  is  also  of  course  necessary  when 
tillage  is  impracticable.  Thin  sowing  would  seem  pref- 
erable, as,  although  the  grass  produced  the  first  year 
or  two  should  be  less  than  maximum  yields,  these  would 
be  more  in  the  years  that  immediately  follow  than  if 
the  grass  had  been  sown  thickly  at  the  first,  as  the  pas- 
ture would  not  so  soon  become  sod  bound  to  the  extent 
of  necessitating  renewal  (see  p.  242).  It  would  not  be 
necessary  to  sow  more  than  12  pounds  per  acre.  The 
seed  weighs  20  to  24  pounds  per  bushel. 

Where  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  seed  at  a  reasonable 
price,  it  may  be  possible  to  obtain  the  roots  jof  this 
grass  without  other  cost  than  that  of  taking  them  out  of 
the  ground.  This  could  best  be  done  by  the  aid  of  a 
plough,  which  would  turn  a  clean  cut  and  narrow  furrow 
and  only  deeply  enough  cut  to  make  the  roots  easy  of 
access.  They  could  then  be  shaken  free  from  the  ad- 
herent earth  with  a  fork.  In  a  larger  way  the  roots 
could  be  drawn  to  the  surface  by  a  spring  tooth  harrow 
and  collected  with  a  horse  rake.  If  the  roots  thus  se- 
cured could  then  be  run  through  a  cutting  box  so  as  to 
cut  them  in  lengths  not  too  short,  material  would  thus 
be  furnished  for  scattering  thinly  over  prepared  land 
and  then  covering  the  same  with  the  harrow.  The  out- 
come would  be  quick  setting  of  the  plants.  They  should 
not  be  allowed  to  remain  long  out  of  the  ground  unless 
kept  in  a  damp  condition.  This  method  would  seem 
specially  well  adapted  to  securing  a  stand  of  the  plants 
on  infertile  sandy  soils. 


QUACK  GRASS.  241 

Pasturing. — As  quack  grass  grows  up  with  much 
vigor  in  the  early  spring  and  as  it  becomes  somewhat 
woody  after  the  seed  stems  begin  to  push  up,  it  ought 
to  be  kept  grazed  with  reasonable  closeness.  If  the 
seed  stems  are  not  kept  from  forming,  much  of  the  grass 
will  be  left  uneaten  unless  the  stock  that  graze  upon  it 
are  compelled  to  eat  it  in  order  to  satisfy  their  needs. 
The  capacity  of  this  grass  to  furnish  grazing  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  tested  in  an  experimental  way,  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  relatively  high.  Close  graz- 
ing in  the  autumn  would  also  seem  justifiable  because 
of  the  extreme  hardihood  of  the  grass.  The  nutrition  in 
the  pasture  is  higher  than  that  of  timothy.  If  grazed 
when  succulent  it  has  been  pronounced  excellent  for 
milk  production.  The  pastures  may  be  greatly  improved 
on  some  soils  by  harrowing  early  with  a  heavy  harrow, 
while  the  ground  is  soft.  In  other  instances  it  would 
be  necessary  to  use  a  disk  harrow.  Nitrogenous  ferti- 
lizers judiciously  applied  will  also  greatly  stimulate  the 
growth  of  the  pastures. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Authorities  are  agreed  as  to 
the  good  quality  of  the  hay  made  by  quack  grass,  pro- 
viding it  is  cut  not  later  than  the  blossoming  stage.  It 
is  thought  to  be  as  valuable  as  timothy  for  feeding  on 
the  farm,  but  it  is  not  so  marketable  as  the  latter.  It 
would  seem  correct  to  say  that  it  should  not  be  sown 
for  the  express  purpose  of  providing  hay,  but  may  of 
course  be  legitimately  used  for  hay  where  it  has  already 
possessed  the  soil.  When  so  used  it  ought  to  be  cut  be- 
fore any  of  the  seeds  mature,  otherwise  these  may  be 
the  means  of  starting  the  grass  in  fields  where  it  is  not 
Grasses — 16. 


242  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

wanted.  The  cutting  and  curing  of  the  hay  may  be 
managed  in  the  same  way  as  the  cutting  and  curing  of 
timothy.  (See  p.  72.)  From  1  to  4  tons  are  produced 
per  acre.  The  average  is  probably  about  1^  tons. 

Securing  Seed. — This  grass  is  seldom,  if  ever,  grown 
for  seed  in  the  United  States,  hence  the  author  is  unable 
to  state  the  best  method  of  securing  seed  based  on 
American  experience.  According  to  Beale,  it  does  not 
readily  produce  seed  until  the  plants  become  dwarfed 
and  crowded  because  of  a  matted  condition  of  growth 
or  through  more  or  less  of  impoverishment  of  the  land. 
It  is  also  quite  probable  that  the  tendency  in  the  plants 
to  produce  seed  is  less  on  the  humus  soils  of  the  prairie 
than  on  soils  essentially  clay  in  texture.  It  is  also 
certain  that  more  or  less  of  the  seed  matures  in  the 
grain  crop  amid  which  this  grass  grows,  and  in  this 
way  aids  in  the  distribution  of  the  same.  The  capacity 
of  this  grass  to  produce  seed  under  prairie  conditions, 
would  seem  to  have  been  under-estimated,  otherwise 
there  would  be  no  adequate  explanation  of  the  abun- 
dant presence  of  this  grass  in  the  soils  of  the  upper  Mis- 
sissippi basin.  If  seed  crops  should  be  wanted,  they 
can  probably  be  obtained  by  cutting  crops  which  mature 
seed  with  the  binder  and  threshing  them  as  orchard 
grass  is  threshed.  (See  p.  145.) 

Renewing. — When  quack  grass  becomes  sod-bound  to 
the  extent  of  lessening  the  grazing  furnished  by  it,  it 
may  be  renewed  by  ploughing  and  then  harrowing  the 
land  ploughed.  The  depth  to  which  the  land  should  be 
ploughed,  the  best  season  for  doing  the  work  and  the 
frequency  with  which  this  should  be  done  depend  upon 


QUACK  GRASS.  243 

conditions  which  relate  chiefly  to  soil  and  climate ;  con- 
sequently, -uniformity  in  the  exact  methods  followed  in 
renewing  the  grass  would  not  be  wise.  Ordinarily  the 
land  should  not  be  ploughed  more  deeply  than  the  mass 
of  the  roots  go.  The  work  may  be  best  done  in  the  early 
fall  or  early  spring  and  at  intervals  of  say  2  to  4  years. 
If  ploughed  quite  late  in  the  fall,  the  upturned  roots 
would  be  injured  by  the  frost  in  cold  climates  and 
ploughed  late  in  the  spring,  much  of  the  usual  season  for 
growth  would  be  lost.  The  work  should  be  done  with 
a  strong  team  because  of  the  toughness  of  the  sod.  It 
should  also  be  done  with  a  plough  that  will  turn  a 
smooth  furrow  that  a  reasonably  smooth  surface  may  be 
made  with  the  harrow.  Such  renewal  is  very  helpful 
in  increasing  growth  in  the  pasture.  By  such  a  method 
of  renewal,  accompanied  by  an  occasional  dressing  with 
fertilizers,  this  grass  could  doubtless  be  grown  for  many 
years. 

Eradicating. — Quack  grass  seeds  are  frequently  in- 
troduced along  with  those  of  seed  grain,  amid  which 
they  have  grown,  more  especially  along  with  wheat  and 
oats.  It  may  also  be  introduced  in  stable  manure  pur- 
chased in  cities,  towns  and  villages.  A  few  plants  are 
thus  lodged  in  the  fields  in  one  or  more  centres.  In 
these  there  may  be  but  a  single  plant  at  the  first. 
Through  the  aggressive  character  of  the  root  growth, 
the  plants  in  each  center  soon  grow  into  a  small  patch 
and  then  into  a  large  one.  While  the  fields  are  being 
cultivated,  the  roots  are  being  carried  to  other  parts  of 
the  field  by  implements  used  in  tillage.  These  form 
new  centres  from  which  growth  radiates,  insomuch  that 


244  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

in  time  if  the  spread  of  the  plants  is  not  checked  the 
field  is  completely  possessed  by  the  grass. 

In  combating  this  grass,  the  following  are  among  the 
most  effective  of  the  measures  that  may  be  adopted : 

1.  Plough  after  the  crops  have  been  harvested.   Work 
the  roots  to  the  surface  by  using  some  form  of  spring 
tooth  or  other  harrow.     Then  rake  with  the  horse  rake 
and  burn  when  dry.     Follow  with  one  or  two  crops  of 
corn  planted  in  hills  and  to  which  the  most  thorough 
cultivation  is  given. 

2.  Sow  rye  in  the  autumn.     Let  the  rye  mature  the 
following  season  or  graze  it  which  is  preferable  and 
follow  with  a  smothering  crop  as  sorghum  or  corn  sown 
thickly.     If  necessary  grow  corn  on  the  same  land  the 
next  year,  managed  as  outlined  above. 

3.  Manure  the  land  heavily  with   reasonably  well 
composted  manure.     Give  to  it  careful  and  thorough 
preparation.     Grow  on  it  corn  or  sorghum,  preferably 
the  latter,  sown  thickly  with  the  drill  and  as  grain  is 
sown  and  then  follow  with   corn  grown   as   described 
above. 

4.  Plough  the  land  carefully  after  the  grass  has  made 
a  good  start  in  the  spring.     When  ploughing  it  turn 
narrow  rather  than  wide  furrows.      Then  use  the  disk 
until  a  good  seed  bed  is  formed  and  then  sow  barley 
thickly,  using  2^  to  3  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.    Plough 
again  as  soon  as  the  barley  crop  is  removed. 

5.  Summer  fallow  the  land,  ploughing  the  same  or 
stirring  the   surface   after  it  has  been  ploughed  with 
sufficient  frequency  to  prevent  the  plant  from  breathing 
through  the  leaves  for  a  single  season. 


QUACK  GRASS.  245 

6.  Divide  the  infested  area  into  two  or  three  fields. 
Grow  on  these  for  forage  such  crops  as  winter  rye,  bar- 
ley and  oats  sown  together,  rape  or  kale  and  corn  or 
sorghum ;  not  fewer  than  two  of  these  crops  are  to  he 
grown   in   succession   each   season.      These    are   to   he 
grazed  off  by  sheep,  alternating  the  grazing  in  the  dif- 
ferent fields,  and  the  process  is  to  be  continued  as  long 
as  may  be  necessary. 

7.  Small  patches  may  be  virtually  destroyed  by  en- 
closing swine  on  them  and  leaving  them  until  they  have 
consumed  the  roots,  of  which  they  are  fond. 

Methods  1,  2  and  3  can  best  be  pursued  in  areas 
where  corn  is  a  leading  crop,  but,  where  it  is  not,  field 
roots  may  be  substituted  for  corn.  Method  4  can  be  best 
adopted  in  prairie  areas  north  of  parallel  45  where  bar- 
ley can  be  successfully  grown  where  sown  thus  late. 

Observations. — 1.  Quack  grass  has  been  destroyed  in 
some  soils  by  one  ploughing  if  done  just  at  the  setting  in 
of  a  prolonged  summer  drought.  The  furrows  should  be 
narrow  and  left  on  edge  as  much  as  possible  and  not 
disturbed  subsequently  with  the  harrow  or  other  im- 
plement until  the  grass  dies  through  want  of  moisture. 

2.  In  seasons  of  much  rainfall  it  is  virtually  impos- 
sible to  destroy  quack  grass  without  excessive  labor,  as 
at  such  times  stirring  the  soil  usually  encourages  the 
growth  of  the  grass. 

3.  Whatever  method  of  eradication  may  be  adopted, 
it  is  usually  necessary  to  dig  out  stray  plants  with  a 
pronged  fork  in  order  to  complete  the  work.    With  this 
object  in  view,  such  a  fork  should  be  carried  in  some 


246  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

way  when  practicable  by  work  hands  engaged  in  the 
various  processes  of  cultivation. 

JOHNSON   GRASS. 

Johnson  grass  (Sorghum  Jialapense  or  Andropogon 
halapensis)  is  a  large,  strong,  coarse  grass  of  the  sor- 
ghum type  that  has  been  grown  for  many  years  in  many 
parts  of  the  South.  It  is  also  known  by  the  names 
Means  grass,  Cuba  grass,  Guinea  grass,  Alabama  Guinea 
grass,  Syrian  grass,  Egyptian  grass,  St.  Mary's  grass, 
Green  Valley  grass,  Arabian  Millet  and  Egyptian  Mil- 
let. It  was  introduced  into  South  Carolina  in  1835  by 
Governor  Means  of  that  state,  who  obtained  the  seed 
from  Turkey,  hence  the  name  Means  grass.  Some  years 
later  William  Johnson  of  Marion  Junction,  Alabama, 
who  obtained  the  seed  from  Governor  Means,  gave  much 
attention  to  placing  its  good  qualities  before  the  farmers 
of  the  South,  hence  in  time  it  came  to  be  known  gener- 
ally as  Johnson  grass.  It  has  frequently  but  erroneous- 
ly been  called  Guinea  grass,  since  these  grasses  have  but 
little  in  common,  except  that  both  under  favorable  con- 
ditions produce  a  large  amount  of  hay,  and  both  are 
easily  injured  by  close  pasturing.  Unlike  Johnson  grass, 
Guinea  grass  has  no  creeping  root-stocks  and  will  not 
produce  seed  in  the  United  States.  It  is  also  more  deli- 
cate in  winter. 

This  grass  is  perennial  and  it  closely  resembles  young 
cane  until  the  plants  are  a  foot  high.  The  stems  are 
usually  from  3  to  6  feet  or  more  in  height,  but  they 
have  been  known  to  grow  to  the  height  of  10  to  12  feet. 
They  are  amply  supplied  with  leaves,  large,  long  and 


FIG.  13. 

JOHNSON  GRASS   (Sorghum  halapense), 
Tennessee  Experiment  Station. 


JOHNSON  GRASS.  249 

broad.  The  head  is  open  and  branching,  from  6  to  12 
inches  long,  and  somewhat  resembles  that  of  barnyard 
grass.  The  root-stocks  are  creeping  and  so  numerous 
and  large  that  they  almost  completely  fill  the  soil  to  a 
considerable  depth.  Full  sized  roots  are  sometimes 
found  2  feet  below  the  surface.  Some  of  them  are  half 
an  inch  .in  diameter  and  they  are  supplied  with  latent 
buds  about  an  inch  apart,  hence  the  smallest  portion  if 
left  in  the  soil  is  sure  to  grow. 

Johnson  grass  does  not  start  in  the  spring  until  the 
weather  is  warm,  and  ceases  to  grow  in  the  autumn  as 
soon  as  it  gets  cool.  In  the  summer  it  grows  very  rapid- 
ly under  favorable  conditions,  and  will  furnish  two  to 
five  cuttings  of  hay  in  one  season.  While  the  weather 
remains  warm  it  may  be  cut  as  soiling  food  once  a 
month.  While  stock  are  fond  of  it  as  hay  or  pasture 
when  grazed  sufficiently  early,  it  does  not  endure  close 
grazing  well,  but  is  essentially  a  hay  and  soiling  plant. 
It  is  also  a  hot  weather  plant  which  can  endure  much 
drought,  but  which  succumbs  to  excessive  wetness.  It 
is  commonly  obtained  from  seed,  but  may  also  be  grown 
by  planting  the  roots.  The  seed  bears  some  resemblance 
to  flax  seed. 

The  strong  points  of  this  grass  may  be  summed  up  as 
follows :  1.  It  may  be  grown  indefinitely  as  permanent 
meadow.  2.  On  good  soil  it  yields  enormous  crops  of 
hay  annually  in  the  aggregate,  which  may  be  grown  at 
a  profit,  3.  It  not  only  makes  good  hay  but  is  a  grand 
soiling  plant,  owing  to  the  number  of  the  cuttings  which 
it  will  furnish.  4.  It  is  relished  by  live  stock  as  pasture, 
soiling  food  or  hay.  5.  A  winter  crop  of  some  other 


250  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

fodder  may  be  reaped  on  the  same  land  early  in  the 
season  with  more  or  less  frequency  and  tAvo  cuttings  of 
Johnson  grass  at  a  later  period.     6.   Swine  can  obtain   , 
much  food  from  its  roots. 

The  weak  points  of  Johnson  grass  are :  1.  It  will  not 
grow  satisfactorily  in  a  cold  climate.  2.  Although 
stock  are  fond  of  it  as  pasture,  close  and  continued 
grazing  soon  lessens  its  productiveness,  but  does  not 
entirely  remove  it.  3.  Where  it  has  been  grown  it  is 
likely  to  continue  to  grow  more  or  less  among  crops 
sown  subsequently  and  to  their  serious  injury.  4.  Un- 
der favorable  conditions  for  growth  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  eradicate  it. 

Distribution. — Johnson  grass  is  native  of  western 
Asia.  It  also  thrives  well  in  northern  Africa  and 
southern  Europe.  It  was  introduced  into  the  United 
States  as  already  stated  in  1835. 

This  grass  is  adapted  only  to  climates  that  are  rea- 
sonably warm.  It  will  not  grow  at  all  satisfactorily 
under  conditions  where  the  frost  penetrates  the  ground 
to  any  considerable  extent,  as  down  to  the  bottom  of 
the  frost  line,  it  is  claimed,  the  roots  will  perish.  In 
latitudes  where  the  roots  are  thus  injured  but  not  de- 
stroyed to  their  full  depth,  the  growth  that  follows  from 
below  the  frost  line  is  late  and  unsatisfactory.  Even  in 
the  southern  states  the  growth  in  the  spring  is  relatively 
late  and  slow,  and  with  the  first  frost  of  autumn  it 
ceases  to  grow.  The  hope,  therefore,  which  some  ranch- 
men have  cherished,  viz.,  that  it  will  succeed  in  the  cold 
areas  of  the  semi-arid  belt  is  never  likely  to  be  realized. 
It  will  stand  dry  weather  well  when  once  established, 


JOHNSON  GRASS.  251 

but  will  yield  much  better  crops  where  the  rainfall  is 
normal. 

The  most  favorable  conditions  for  growing  Johnson 
grass  in  the  United  States  are  found  in  North  and 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Tennes- 
see, Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma  and 
Texas.  In  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri 
and  Kansas  it  has  been  grown  with  some  success  as  far 
north  as  the  latitude  of  St.  Louis  or  about  38  degrees 
north.  But  there  would  seem  to  be  no  good  reasons  for 
growing  it  in  these  states  since  they  produce  other  forage 
crops  both  numerously  and  abundantly.  Above  the 
fortieth  parallel  the  attempt  should  not  be  made  to  grow 
it  for  economic  uses.  On  the  southwestern  ranges  the 
conditions  are  too  dry  for  growing  it  with  much  success, 
nor  is  it  a  good  pasture  grass,  viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  maintenance,  under  close  grazing.  Doubtless 
it  will  grow  well  in  the  milder  of  the  mountain  val- 
leys in  the  West  and  beyond  the  Cascades,  but  it  would 
certainly  be  a  mistake  to  grow  it  in  these,  because  of 
the  abundance  of  superior  forage  which  may  be  grown 
in  them  from  plants  that  are  easy  of  eradication. 

In  Canada  there  is  no  place  for  this  grass.  The  cli- 
matic conditions  are  too  cold.  Any  attempt  to  intro- 
duce its  growth  into  any  of  the  provinces  of  Canada  for 
economic  uses  would  be  unwise. 

Soils. — Johnson  grass  will  grow  on  a  variety  of  soils, 
but  it  will  succeed  best  on  loams  rich  and  deep,  since 
its  roots  gather  food  from  all  parts  of  the  soil  down  to 
a  considerable  distance.  It  would  probably  be  correct 
to  say  that  it  will  grow  in  good  form  on  ground  that 


252  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

will  produce  good  crops  of  corn,  and  that  where 
il  is  grown  the  other  conditions  being  right,  the 
yield  will  be  proportionate  to  the  richness  of  the  soil. 
Excellent  crops  may  usually  be  grown  011  rich  alluvial 
soils  and  calcareous  loams  if  well  drained.  It  is  impor- 
tant, that  all  lands  on  which  it  grows  shall  be  free  from 
superfluous  water,  as  soils  that  contain  an  excess  of 
water  are  much  adverse  to  the  growth  of  Johnson  grass. 
While  it  will  grow  on  sandy  and  light  soils,  even  on 
sandy  dunes  and  barren  fields,  the  yields  are  small  and 
Unsatisfactory. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — It  can  scarcely  be  said  of 
Johnson  grass  that  it  is  a  rotation  plant,  since,  usually 
when  grown  for  hay,  it  is  grown  indefinitely  from  year 
to  year.  Because  of  the  persistence  with  which  it  grows 
up  in  other  crops  that  follow  it,  and  from  year  to  year, 
it  ought  not  to  be  grown  in  the  alternations  of  any  reg- 
ular rotation.  Wherever  it  is  grown,  the  aim  should 
be  to  grow  only  Johnson  grass  and  to  so  stimulate  its 
growth  by  fertilizers  that  a  maximum  of  production 
will  result.  But  there  is  a  sort  of  alternation  in  which 
it  is  frequently  grown,  that  is  to  say,  a  crop  of  grain 
such  as  winter  oats  harvested  early  in  the  season,  and 
two  successive  crops  of  hay  taken  the  same  season  from 
the  Johnson  grass,  these  growing  up  from  the  roots  of 
the  grass  that  are  in  the  soil.  This  is  made  possible 
and  also  practicable  by  the  slow  growth  of  the  Johnson 
grass  in  cool  weather,  and  by  the  favorable  influence 
which,  under  certain  conditions,  breaking  up  the  root 
system  has  upon  the  growth  of  the  plants.  Clover  has 


JOHNSON  GRASS.  253 

field.  The  first  cutting  would  be  taken  for  hay,  after 
which  the  Johnson  grass  would  take  possession,  the  de- 
caying clover  roots  meanwhile  feeding  the  grass. 

Preparing  tlie  Soil. — When  the  seed  of  Johnson  grass 
is  sown  to  obtain  a  stand  of  the  plants,  it  should  be  on 
clean  soil,  or  the  weeds  will  greatly  hinder  the  growl li 
of  the  grass  for  a  time.  It  grows  rather  slowly  and  deli- 
cately at  the  first,  notwithstanding  the  rapidity  with 
which  it  grows  later.  Similar  preparation  should  also 
be  given  to  the  soil  when  it  is  planted  from  cuttings,  not 
because  it  will  be  unable  to  make  a  stand  under  those 
conditions,  but  because  it  will  require  a  considerably 
longer  time  to  do  so.  Some  growers  have  even  gone 
the  length  of  summer  fallowing  the  land  for  one  season 
before  sowing  this  grass,  but  clean  cultivation  given  to 
some  crop  requiring  the  same  ought  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose sought  just  as  well. 

Sowing  or  Planting. — Johnson  grass  may  be  propa- 
gated from  seed  or  by  means  of  cuttings  from  the  root- 
stocks.  The  former  is  the  simpler  method  and  the  less 
expensive  when  good  seed  can  be  obtained,  but  in  some 
instances  the  seed  produced  is  not  very  satisfactory. 
Many  of  the  seeds  are  defective  and  many  will  not  ger- 
minate, but  this  does  not  hold  true  of  all  seed. 

It  would  be  easily  possible  to  sow  the  seed  too  early 
in  the  spring  as  the  young  plants  are  tender.  Spring 
sowing  may  extend  from  April  to  July,  April  being  a 
favorite  month.  Autumn  sowing  may  extend  from 
August  to* October  according  to  the  locality,  September 
being  a  favorite  month.  The  seeds  are  slow  of  germina- 
tion, especially  in  cool  weather.  But  little  return  will 


254  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

be  obtained  from  spring  sown  seed  the  same  season,  but 
seed  sown  in  the  autumn  should  produce  two  cuttings 
of  hay  the  following  year.  The  seed  may  be  sown  by 
hand  and  covered  with  the  harrow  or  it  may  be  put  in 
with  the  drill.  It  should  not  be  buried  deeply.  It  is  not 
customary  to  sow  the  seed  in  combination  with  other 
grasses,  but  it  may  be  sown  with  a  nurse  crop.  It  is 
usually  recommended  to  sow  one  bushel  of  seed  per 
acre.  Some  again  consider  a  peck  to  half  a  bushel  suffi- 
cient. But  the  amount  of  seed  that  may  properly  be 
used  is  much  influenced  by  the  condition  of  the  land. 
Heavy  seeding  is  recommended  in  the  spring  that  the 
grass  may  hold  its  own  against  weeds.  When  the  land 
has  been  well  prepared  much  less  seed  will  suffice  than 
when  the  opposite  is  true.  When  the  land  is  weedy  the 
seed  is  sometimes  sown  in  rows  far  enough  apart  to  ad- 
mit of  horse  cultivation,  with  a  view  to  encourage 
growth  in  the  plants. 

When  propagated  from  cuttings,  roots  are  obtained 
and  planted  in  shallow  furrows  made  with  the  plough. 
They  are  covered  with  the  harrow.  The  roots  may  be 
made  with  the  spade  or  corn  knife,  but  most  rapidly  if 
shaken  free  from  dirt  by  running  them  through  ^  cut- 
ting box.  Another  method  is  to  plant  the  roots  between 
the  hills  of  corn,  or  in  furrows  made  between  the  corn 
rows  when  the  corn  crop  is  being  made  ready  to  lay  by 
for  the  season.  In  yet  other  instances  the  plants  are 
put  in  one  way  between  the  hills  of  corn,  the  cultivator 
being  used  but  one  way  in  cultivating  the  corn,  and  so 
as  not  to  disturb  the  Johnson  grass. 

Pasturing. — While  this   grass  is  much  relished  by 


JOHNSON  GRASS.  255 

stock  before  the  heading  out  stage,  and  while  it  is  also 
valuable  for  milk  production,  it  does  not  stand  well  con- 
tinued pasturing  and  yet  long  pasturing  does  not  com- 
pletely destroy  it.  It  only  reduces  the  return  in  pasture. 
The  plants  thicken  up  again  in  time  when  the  pasturing 
ceases.  When  the  pasturing  is  thus  reduced,  the  land 
is  frequently  ploughed  and  sown  with  winter  oats.  One 
effect  of  the  ploughing  is  to  aid  in  renewing  the  grass. 
It  is  of  but  little  use  for  pasture  after  the  seed  forms ; 
it  becomes  so  woody. 

Swine  are  fond  of  the  ro.ots.  They  search  for  them  as 
diligently,  it  has  been  claimed,  as  for  sweet  potatoes  or 
artichokes.  An  occasional  ploughing  will  greatly  aid 
the  swine  in  searching  for  the  roots. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Johnson  grass  is  ready  for  be- 
ing harvested  for  hay  when  it  comes  into  bloom.  It 
ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  pass  this  stage  before  being 
cut,  as  later  it  turns  woody  very  quickly.  In  such  a 
condition  live  stock  do  not  eat  it  readily.  Some  advocate 
cutting  it  as  soon  as  the  heads  appear  and  before  it  comes 
into  blossom. 

The  plan  is  considered  a  good  one  which  cuts  it  in  the 
forenoon,  following  in  due  time  with  the  tedder  and 
raking  and  putting  into  cocks  the  same  afternoon  or 
evening.  It  is  drawn  when  ready  and  stacked  or  housed, 
and  is  fed  or  baled  from  the  stacks  as  circumstances  war- 
rant. When  curing,  it  is  the  aim  to  preserve  the  green- 
ness to  the  greatest  extent  possible. 

In  the  Gulf  States  from  3  to  5  cuttings  may  be  ob- 
tained from  it  each  season.  The  first  of  these  is  ready 
about  the  middle  of  May.  Each  of  the  subsequent  cut- 


256  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

tings  is'  ready  at  intervals  of  4  to  6  weeks  from  the  time 
of  the  cutting  immediately  preceding.  The  yield  from 
each  cutting  is  from  1  to  3  tons  according  to  the  rich- 
ness of  the  land.  Further  north  from  2  to  3  cuttings 
only  can  be  obtained,  because  of  the  shorter  season  for 
growth.  As  many  as  15  tons  have  been  grown  per  year, 
but  under  conditions  that  were  most  favorable  to  its 
growth,  and  when  the  same  has  been  further  stimulated 
by  suitable  fertilizers.  The  average  yields,  however, 
will  probably  not  exceed  4  to  5  tons  per  acre  per  season. 

Fertilizers  may  be  applied  early  in  the  season  or  be- 
tween the  cuttings  as  prudence  may  dictate.  The  kind  of 
fertilizer  will  of  course  depend  on  the  land,  but  nitrog- 
enous fertilizers  are  usually  most  helpful  to  the  growrth 
of  this  grass.  One  hundred  pounds  of  gypsum  per  acre 
and  a  similar  amount  of  complete  fertilizer  applied  be- 
fore or  after  the  first  cutting  have  given  good  results. 
Of  course  where  this  grass  is  to  be  cut  from  year  to 
year  indefinitely,  the  question  of  proper  fertilization 
becomes  one  of  the  very  first  in  importance. 

In  some  sections  of  the  South,  more  especially  in  the 
Gulf  States,  some  growers  have  large  areas  laid  down 
to  this  grass.  They  bale  the  hay.  For  this  hay  there 
is  a  good  demand  in  the  South,  and  large  profits  are 
made  in  some  instances  from  growing  it.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  coarseness  of  the  hay,  it  is  quite  palatable,  hav- 
ing in  it  a  considerable  quantity  of  saccharine  content. 

Securing  Seed. — This  grass  seeds  freely,  but  under 
some  conditions  and  in  some  seasons,  the  seed  does  not 
fill  out  well.  A  good  crop  of  seed  would  be  about  9 
bushels  r>er  acre.  The  first  cutting  of  the  grass  for  the 


JOHNSON  GRASS.  257 

season  is  preferred  for  seed,  but  it  may  be  obtained  from 
the  second.  It  may  be  cut  for  seed  with  the  binder  and 
harvested  with  the  ordinary  grain  separator.  The  bind- 
er may  with  advantage  be  set  to  cut  the  crop  high,  to 
avoid  unnecessary  work  in  threshing.  The  seed,  when 
properly  winnowed,  should  weigh  25  pounds  per  meas- 
ured bushel.  Owing  to  the  strong  feeling  that  exists 
against  this  grass,. because  of  the  difficulty  in  destroying 
it,  the  demand  for  the  seed  has  been  very  greatly  cur- 
tailed, and  this  has  had  the  effect  of  discouraging  the 
growth  of  seed. 

Renewing. — As  with  all  plants  that  increase  by  means 
of  root-stocks,  pushing  out  horizontally  into  the  soil,  the 
tendency  is  constantly  present  in  this  grass  to  such  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  the  plants  as  to  cause  them  to 
mat  to  the  extent  of  decreasing  growth.  When  this  oc- 
curs, ploughing  the  land  and  smoothing  the  surface  will 
renew  growth  in  the  same.  And  since  growth  in  John- 
son grass  entirely  ceases  during  the  season  of  frost  the 
plan  has  been  adopted  in  some  instances  of  ploughing  the 
land  in  the  fall  and  sowing  on  it  a  crop  of  winter  turf 
oats  as  previously  intimated.  But  the  grass  should  be 
well  set  before  this  is  attempted.  The  method  which 
grows  clover  early  in  the  season  for  promoting  the 
growth  of  the  grass  has  already  been  referred  to. 

Eradicating. — Testimony  is  almost  unanimous  in  the 
opinion  that  Johnson  grass  cannot  be  entirely  eradicated 
where  it  has  once  obtained  a  foothold.  That  is  not  the 
opinion  of  the  author,  who  cherishes  the  view  that  if 
the  plants  are  not  allowed  to  grow  above  ground  for  a 
single  season,  they  will  die.  To  prevent  them  from 
Grasses — 17. 


258  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

breathing  thus  would  doubtless  involve  great  labor,  but  it 
should  prove  effective.  It  has  been  claimed  that  pastur- 
ing will  eradicate  it,  but  the  claim  is  not  well  supported 
by  facts.  Close  and  constant  pasturing  will  greatly  de- 
crease it,  but  some  of  the  plants  remain  ready  to  in- 
crease and  take  possession  should  the  land  be  again  cul- 
tivated. It  is  also  claimed  that  swine  will  eradicate 
it  if  allowed  to  dig  up  its  roots  for  the  purpose  of  feed- 
ing on  them.  To  accomplish  this,  however,  may  require 
several  seasons,  and  though  successful  is  only  applica- 
ble to  limited  areas. 

But  it  is  easily  possible  to  adopt  measures  that  will 
prevent  it  from  gaining  a  foothold  on  a  farm  on  which 
it  has  not  yet  appeared,  and  from  spreading  on  one 
where  it  may  be  growing. 

The  chief  agencies  in  spreading  it  are  the  following: 

1.  Carrying  portions  of  the  root  to  new  centers  of  dis- 
tribution by  means  of  the  plow,  harrow,  cultivator  or 
other  implements  of  tillage.     2.   Sowing  the  seeds  along 
with  those  of  grain  amid  which  Johnson  grass  may  have 
matured.     3.   Seeds   scattering  from   plants   that   may 
have  grown  up  and  matured  in  a  crop  of  grain  or  in 
corn  or  cotton  after  these  have  been  laid  by.     4.  In  the 
droppings  of  cattle  that  may  have  eaten  the  seed.     The 
last  named  is  one  of  the  most  common  mediums  by  which 
the  seed  is  carried. 

The  preventive  measures  are:  1.  Exercise  such  care 
in  tilling  land  where  the  grass  already  exists  in  certain 
places  as  will  prevent  carrying  the  roots  to  new  centres. 

2.  Exercise  even  greater  care  in  the  purchase  of  seed 
grain  or  in  cleaning  the  same.     3.  Prevent  seed  from 


JOHNSON  GRASS.  259 

maturing  in  fields  where  other  crops  are  grown.  4.  Do 
not  allow  stock  to  feed  on  hay  or  pasture  which  contains 
mature  seeds. 

Value  of  Johnson  Grass.—  Because  of  the  many  con- 
flicting views  that  exist  in  the  South  with  reference  to 
this  question,  it  is  not  easy  to  determine  as  to  the  place 
for  this  grass.  That  quite  a  number  in  several  states 
have  found  its  cultivation  largely  profitable  is  certainly 
true.  That  it  has  proven  more  valuable  than  the  cotton 
crop  in  many  instances  is  equally  clear.  There  is  also 
ample  evidence  to  show  that  under  some  conditions, 
when  cotton  follows  this  grass,  its  presence  has  not  very 
seriously  interfered  with  the  cultivation  of  the  cotton. 
And  that  it  has  considerable  value  as  a  hay  and  soiling 
plant  cannot  be  questioned.  Many  have  grown  it  for 
botli  uses  with  much  profit  and  for  many  successive 
years.  Nevertheless  the  difficulty  of  removing  this  grass 
from  the  soil  is  so  great  that  numbers  who  have  sown 
it  are  willing  to  give  a  handsome  reward  to  have  it  erad- 
icated from  their  farms.  Its  presence  on  certain  lands 
has  certainly  tended  to  lessen  their  value.  This  in 
itself  should  furnish  a  strong  argument  against  extend- 
ing its  growth.  There  is  not  the  same  necessity  for 
growing  it  now  in  the  South  as  formerly,  since  other 
hay  and  pasture  plants  are  now  better  known,  which 
may  be  grown  without  experiencing  serious  difficulty  in 
removing  them  from  the  land.  While,  in  some  in- 
stances, it  may  be  well  to  make  the  best  of  the  presence 
of  this  plant  where  it  has  possessed  the  land,  it  should 
certainly  be  the  aim  to  prevent  its  further  distribution 


260  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

and  to  eradicate  it  completely  where  it  is  present  only  in 
patches,  small  or  large. 

CRAB    GRASS. 

Crab  Grass  (Panicum  sanguinale)  is  one  of  a  some- 
what numerous  family  of  plants.  It  is  doubtless  so 
named  from  the  fancied  resemblance  which  its  spikelets 
bear  to  the  claw  of  a  crab. 

The  stems  grow  from  1  to  3  feet  high.  They  have 
been  known  to  reach  the  height  of  7  feet,  but  the  aver- 
age height  in  good  soil  is  a  little  more  than  2  feet. 
They  are  much  branched  and  are  somewhat  decumbent 
at  the  base.  Under  favorable  conditions  roots  are 
formed  at  the  lower  nodes.  From  three  to  six  flower 
spikelets  from  3  to  6  inches  long  proceed  from  the  top 
of  the  stem.  These  produce  seeds  freely.  The  roots 
are  fibrous. 

Crab  grass  is  an  annual  which  grows  best  in  sum- 
mer and  in  the  hottest  weather.  It  springs  up  in  stub- 
ble fields  where  grain  has  been  grown,  and  in  a  few 
weeks,  if  encouraged  by  frequent  showers,  will  produce 
one  or  even  two  crops  of  hay.  It  will  also  grow  up 
quickly  in  corn  that  is  laid  by,  so  as  to  cover  the  ground 
deeply  with  a  coating  of  herbage.  It  is  very  trouble- 
some in  cultivated  crops  and  in  gardens,  more  especially 
when  these  grow  in  fertile  soils,  but  in  grass  crops  that 
are  at  all  permanent  in  character  it  soon  gives  way  to 
other  grasses.  It  furnishes  excellent  hay  and  grazing, 
being  at  once  palatable  and  nutritious.  This  singular 
plant  has  the  characteristic  of  being  one  of  the  best  hay 
plants  of  the  South  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the 
most  troublesome  weeds. 


CRAB  GRASS.  261 

Distribution. — Crab  grass  is  said  to  be  native  to  the 
South  and  also  introduced  from  the  old  world.  It  cer- 
tainly finds  a  very  congenial  home  in  the  South.  It 
grows  in  -all  the  states  thereof  from  Virginia  to  Texas. 
North  of  the  Ohio  river  it  is  but  little  known.  Above 
that  line  it  is  not  grown  to  provide  hay  or  grazing. 

Soils. — Crab  grass  grows  most  luxuriantly  in  good 
soils.  The  richer  the  soil  the  more  luxuriantly  will  it 
grow,  but  it  will  grow  reasonably  well  in  any  soil  that 
will  produce  crops  of  grain,  corn,  tobacco  or  cotton. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — This  grass  being  at  the  same 
time  a  weed  is  not  grown  in  any  regular  rotation. 
When  used  for  hay  and  pasture,  such  utilization  is  sim- 
ply making  the  best  of  an  intruder,  which  grows  as  it 
were  spontaneously  in  the  cultivated  fields.  It  may 
also  be  utilized  in  putting  humus  in  the  soil  by  plough- 
ing it  under  in  the  autumn.  This  of  course  ought  to  be 
done  before  it  matures  seed. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — Since  the  seed  of  this  grass  is 
seldom  or  never  sown, 'of  course  no  preparation  of  the 
soil  is  necessary.  Nevertheless  when  it  is  desired  to  get 
grazing  from  it  as  early  as  possible,  land  in  which  the 
seeds  are  present,  if  ploughed  in  May,  harrowed  and 
rolled,  will  soon  be  covered  with  a  luxuriant  growth. 
Two  mowings  may  be  obtained  from  land  treated  thus. 

Sowing. — Since  the  crop  grows  spontaneously  it  is 
seldom  or  never  sown.  In  fact  it  would  not  seem  wise 
to  sow  a  plant  which  is  troublesome  to  destroy.  The 
aim  should  rather  be  to  get  rid  of  it.  The  seeds  will 
live  long  in  the  soil — how  long  is  not  known. 

Pasturing. — This  grass  furnishes  excellent  grazing 


262  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

from  June  or  July  onward  until  autumn.  In  a  few 
weeks  after  a  grain  crop  is  cut,  it  furnishes  fine  pasture, 
coining  in  at  a  season  when  in  its  absence  it  would  fre- 
quently be  necessary  to  resort  to  soiling  crops.  But  it 
will  riot  provide  grazing  in  winter. 

In  the  "Farmers  Book  of  Grasses,"  Dr.  D.  L.  Phares, 
the  author,  gives  an  interesting  experience  in  growing 
this  grass  for  hay  in  alternation  with  Burr  clover  (Med- 
icago  maculata),  grown  to  provide  winter  and  spring 
grazing.  The  clover  was  sown  on  prepared  land  in  the 
autumn  and'grazed  from  December  to. April.  The  clov- 
er then  matured  enough  of  seed  to  provide  another  crop 
before  the  plants  died  in  May.  They  had  no  sooner  dis- 
appeared than  the  crab  grass  sprang  up  thickly  and  was 
mowed  in  July  or  August  and  again  in  October.  The 
yield  of  the  crab  grass  was  2^  to  3  tons  per  acre  from  the 
two  cuttings.  The  second  cutting  was  much  lighter 
than  the  first,  but  of  finer  quality.  The  clover  would 
then  spring  up  again  and  furnish  grazing  for  the  winter 
to  be  followed  in  turn  by  the  crab  grass.  This  was  con- 
tinued for  several  years  without  diminution  in  the 
yields  of  the  clover  or  the  crab  grass.  The  clover  was 
apparently  able  to  keep  the  soil  supplied  with  a  suf- 
ficiency of  nitrogen. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Crab  grass  hay  is  harvested 
like  other  hay.  It  should  be  cut  when  the  flowers  are 
formed.  It  cures  readily  and  quickly  in  good  weather, 
but  takes  great  injury  from  rain  or  even  from  heavy 
dews.  In  showery  weather  the  cocks  should  if  possi- 
ble be  protected  by  caps,  and  when  stacked  .they  should 
be  topped  out  with  other  grass  that  turns  the  rain  bet- 


CRAB  GRASS.  263 

tor  than  crab  grass.  The  yields  of  hay  reaped  in  stub- 
ble fields  run  from  1  to  2  tons  per  acre  on  average  land. 
The  hay  contains  but  little  fiber  and  stands  well  in  nu- 
tritive qualities  and  is  much  relished  by  stock.  It  has 
been  claimed  by  good  authorities  that  more  hay  is  made 
from  this  grass  in  the  South  than  from  any  other  grass. 
Since  it  is  so  frequently  used  for  this  purpose,  and 
since  it  costs  only  the  harvesting  of  the  crop,  it  has  been 
called  "the  poor  man's  hay."  In  some  instances  after 
corn  has  been  harvested  it  is  cut  for  hay,  but  usually  it 
would  be  a  better  plan  to  graze  the  grass  under  such  con- 
ditions than  mow  it.  When  crab  grass  grows  up  strong- 
ly amid  cow  peas  intended  for  hay,  the  grass  will  facili- 
tate the  curing  of  the  hay  when  the  crop  is  cut. 

Securing  Seed. — As  the  seed  of  crab  grass  is  seldom, 
if  ever  sown,  it  is  very  seldom  if  ever  saved  for  sowing. 
If  wanted,  however,  it  could  easily  be  obtained  by  cut- 
ting with  the  binder  and  threshing  the  crop. 

Methods  of  Eradicating. — It  has  been  claimed  that 
hay  made  from  this  grass  has  been  more  valuable  acre 
for  acre  than  the  revenue  obtained  from  cotton  or  corn. 
Nevertheless  because  of  the  trouble  which  it  gives  in 
cultivated  crops,  it  would  seem  to  be  wise  to  discourage 
its  growth. 

To  eradicate  it  is  no  easy  task  since  it  seeds  so  quick- 
ly and  profusely,  and  the  seeds  retain  germinating  pow- 
er for  so  long  a  period  in  the  soil.  The  season  for  at- 
tacking it  is  that  time  of  the  year  when  it  matures 
seed,  and  the  aim  should  be  to  adopt  those  methods  of 
eradication  that  will  most  quickly  cause  the  seeds  to 
germinate  with  a  view  to  destroying  them.  The  fol- 


204  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

lowing  methods  arc  submitted  among  others  that  might 
be  given :  1.  Sow  forage  crops  and  graze  them  off  as 
described  in  method  6  given  for  eradicating  quack  grass 
(see  p.  247).  Proceed  thus  for  a  term  sufficiently  long 
to  effect  the  end  sought.  2.  Sow  cow  peas  or  some  crop 
that  requires  cultivation  from  year  to  year  and  in  alter- 
nation with  grain  crops  for  a  period  sufficiently  long. 
No  crab  grass  seeds  should  be  allowed  to  mature  in  the 
cultivated  crop. 


CHAPTEEXIII. 

THE   RYE   GRASSES. 

Of  the  rye  grasses  but  three  would  seem  deserving 
of  the  attention  of  those  who  till  the  lands  of  the  United 
-States  and  Canada.  They  are  considered  in  the  present 
chapter ;  these  are  Western  Rye  grass  (Agropyrum  ten- 
erum),  Perennial  Rye  grass  (Lolium  perenne)  and  Ital- 
ian Rye  grass  (Lolium  Italicum.) 

Western  Rye  grass,  native  to  the  prairies  of  the 
American  and  Canadian  Northwest,  is  possessed  of  con- 
siderable merit  and  is  likely  to  be  extensively  cultivated 
in  northern  areas.  Perennial  and  Italian  Rye  grasses 
have  long  been  high  in  favor  with  the  agriculturists  of 
Europe.  They  have  not  been  assigned  an  equally  im- 
portant place  under  American  conditions  but  have  suf- 
ficient adaptation  to  certain  of  these  conditions  to  merit 
attention; 

WESTERN"  RYE  GRASS. 

Western  Rye  grass  (Agropyrum  ienerum)  is  some- 
times called  Slender  Wheat  grass:  The  term  Rye  grass 
has  doubtless  been  applied  to  it  from  the  somewhat  close 
resemblance  which  it  bears  to  that  plant.  Although 
of  the  same  family  as  quack  grass,  it  does  not  send  out 
underground  stems  like  the  latter.  The  name  Slender 
Wheat  grass  has  doubtless  been  applied  to  it  because  of 


266  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

the  resemblance  which  the  long,  slender  and  smooth 
heads  bear  to  those  of  wheat.  It  is  the  only  grass 
among  the  hundreds  growing  wild  on  the  prairies  of  the 
West  or  Northwest  which,  up  to  the  present  time,  has 
been  found  of  sufficient  value  to  give  it  a  place  among 
the  cultivated  grasses. 

Western  Rye  grass  is  a  perennial.  Properly  speak- 
ing, it  is  a  bunch  grass.  It  is  the  famous  bunch  grass 
of  the  bunch  grass  ranges  of  the  Canadian  Northwest. 
When  growing  on  the  ranges  the  height  at  maturity  is 
from  12  to  18  inches,  but  under  cultivation  it  grows  to 
the  average  height  of  about  3  feet;  in  some  instances, 
it  attains  to  the  height  of  4  feet.  When  the  plants  do 
not  grow  too  closely,  they  produce  many  leaves  around 
the  crown  but  these  are  not  so  numerous,,  nor  do  they 
grow  as  high  as  those  of  Russian  brome  grass.  Several 
stems  rise  from  one  plant.  These  grow  erectly  and 
produce  a  head  with  an  average  height  of  about  6 
inches  but  sometimes  they  are  considerably  longer.  The 
roots  are  fibrous  and  abundant;  the  long  tendrils  from 
the  same  push  away  far  downward  into  the  soil.  It 
is  the  root  system  of  growth,  doubtless,  that  gives  the 
plant  the  marked  ability  which  it  possesses  of  with- 
standing drought. 

Western  Rye  grass  is  one  of  the  hardiest  of  grasses; 
none  of  the  cultivated  grasses  excels  it  for  growing  un- 
der dry  conditions.  Under  very  dry  conditions  it  will 
give  better  yields  than  Russian  brome.  It  does  not  be- 
gin to  grow  so  early  in  the  spring  as  some  other  grasses, 
nor  does  it  grow  with  much  vigor  in  the  autumn.  It 
conies  into  flower  from  July  first  and  onward  and  is  a 


WESTERN  RYE  GRASS.  269 

great  producer  of  seed.  It  will  thrive  under  a  great 
variety  of  conditions  and  will  produce  relatively  large 
quantities  of  -hay.  Moreover,  like  timothy,  the  hay  is 
easily  handled ;  the  seed  is  easily  sown  and  the  crops  of 
hay  and  seed  are  easily  managed. 

While  it  is  a  good  pasture  grass,  the  season  of  abun- 
dant growth  is  not  of  very  long  duration.  If  pastured 
before  the  heading  out  stage,  it  is  much  relished  by 
stock  but  not  so  much  at  a  later  stage  of  growth.  The 
hay  is  eaten  readily  by  stock,  if  cut  early, -but  is  not 
highly  relished,  if  harvested  later;  and  it  produces  but 
little  aftermath. 

Compared  with  Russian  brome  grass,  its  great  rival  in 
the  entire  American  Northwest,  the  Russian  brome 
starts  earlier  in  the  spring,  produces  a  more  abundant 
leaf  growth  through  the  season  and  especially  in  the  au- 
tumn and  furnishes  hay  that  is  better  relished.  But  the 
Western  Rye  produces  somewhat  heavier  yields  of  hay 
under  like  conditions;  especially  under  dry  conditions, 
it  grows  somewhat  better  on  soils  more  or  less  impreg- 
nated with  alkali;  furnishes  -seed  that  is  more  easily 
secured  and  gives  no  trouble  as  the  Russian  sometimes 
does  by  remaining  in  the  land.  Both  are  strongly 
drought  resistant,  but  in  this  respect  the  rye  grass  prob- 
ably excels ;  both  will  grow  well  in  moist  conditions  but 
in  this  respect  the  Russian  brome  excels ;  both  are  good 
soil  binders  but  here  again  the  Russian  brome  is  some- 
what ahead. 

Distribution. — Western  rye  grass  is  indigenous  to 
America.  Although  it  has  doubtless  grown  wild  on 
the  Western  prairies  during  forgotten  centuries,  it  was 


270  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

not  until  1880  that  attempts  were  made  to  improve  it  by 
cultivation.  In  that  year,  Mr.  Kenneth  Mclvor  of  Vir- 
den,  Manitoba,  Canada,  gathered  some  of  the  seed  with 
a  view  to  test  its  qualities  under  cultivation.  It  was 
Mr.  Mclvor  who  first  drew  the  attention  of  the  public  to 
its  merits.  In  this  way  the  Canadian  and  American 
departments  of  agriculture  became  interested  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  seed  for  experimental  purposes  in  vari- 
ous provinces  and  states. 

This  grass  will  grow  under  a  great  variety  of  climatic 
conditions  but  is  relatively  better  adapted  to  cool 
than  to  hot  temperatures.  Although  it  will  grow  more 
readily  and  vigorously  in  moist  climates,  it  has  peculiar 
adaptation  for  growing  on  the  dry  prairies  of  the  West. 
No  amount  of  cold  seems  to  injure  the  plants. 

Western  Rye  grass  grows  on  the  western  prairies 
from  California  and  New  Mexico  on  the  south  to  Brit- 
ish Columbia  and  Athabasca  on  the  north.  It  has  also 
been  found  as  far  east  as  New  Hampshire.  On  the 
plains  of  the  western  and  more  especially  the  north- 
western prairies,  it  has  rendered  the  best  service  in  pro- 
viding grazing  for  the  live  stock  of  the  ranchman.  Its 
most  congenial  home  in  a  state  of  nature  is  the  foothills 
and  the  bench  lands  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  In  the 
western  states  it  has  rendered  excellent  service  on  the 
ranges  from  Nebraska  northward.  East  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi river  other  grasses,  already  introduced,  so  com- 
pletely meet  the  requirement  of  farmers,  that  it  is  not 
probably  western  rye  grass  will  be  much  grown  in  these. 

In  Canada  although  it  will  grow  well  under  cultiva- 
tion from  sea  to  sea,  it  will  be  most  helpful  in  the 


WESTERN  RYE  GRASS.  271 

provinces  west  from  Lake  Superior  and  especially  in  lo- 
calities more  or  less  deficient-  in  rainfall.  East  from 
Lake  Superior,  timothy  will  meet  the  needs  of  the  farm- 
er better  than  western  rye  grass. 

Soils. — There  are  but  few  grasses,  if  indeed  any, 
which  adapt  themselves  so  well  to  a  wide  range  of  soils 
and  soil  conditions.  As  with  other  grasses,  the  better 
the  soil  the  better  the  crop  yields  will  be,  but  it  will 
also  give  fair  returns  from  sands  and  humus  soils,  so 
light  as  to  lift  with  the  winds.  It  has  peculiar  adapta- 
tion for  being  sown  on  prairie  soils,  and  its  great  value 
on  these  consists  in  the  comparatively  good  yields  that 
may  be  obtained  from  it,  under  conditions  too  dry  for 
the  most  successful  growth  of  grasses  that  are  more  pala- 
table. It  will  grow  on  heavy  soils,  as  well  as  on  those 
that  are  light,  and  will  even  give  good  returns  on  soils 
so  impregnated  with  alkali  that  they  will  not  grow  a  good 
crop  of  grain.  When  grown  for  a  term  of  years  on  these, 
grain  crops  may  then  be  grown  successfully,  but  much 
alkali  will,  of  course,  prevent  the  successful  growth  of 
either. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  preparing  the  soil  for  this 
grass,  it  is  better  usually  to  plough  in  the  autumn,  and 
then  to  harrow  at  intervals  in  the  spring,  until  the 
grass  is  sown  about  the  end  of  May.  By  that  time 
many  of  the  weed  seeds  near  the  surface  have  been 
sprouted.  When  sown  with  a  nurse  crop  which  is  to 
be  harvested,  it  must,  of  course,  be  sown  early.  On  soils 
that  drift,  the  plan  has  succeeded  well,  which  ploughs 
the  land,  not  too  early,  so  as  to  escape  as  far  as  practica- 
ble the  usual  season  of  soil  drifting;  to  plough  somewhat 


272  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

deeply  and  then  to  sow  along  with  some  grain,  any  time 
between  June  and  the  early  autumn  when  the  ground  is 
moist.  Preparing  the  land  and  sowing  the  seed  of  this 
grass  must  be  considered  with  special  reference  to  the 
needs  of  areas,  frequently  short  in  rainfall,  since  it  is  in 
these  that  western  rye  grass  will  render  the  most  im- 
portant service. 

Sowing. — Under  the  conditions  where  the  necessity 
exists  for  sowing  western  rye  grass,  it  can  he  sown  with 
the  best  assurance  of  success  somewhat  late  in  May  or  in 
June,  and  on  soil  prepared  by  ploughing  in  the  fall  and 
giving  successive  harrowings  in  the  spring.  When  thus 
sown,  it  is  considered  preferable  to  sow  without  a  nurse 
crop ;  and  then  to  mow  once  or  twice  to  prevent  weeds 
from  seeding,  leaving  the  plants  cut  to  mulch  the  soil. 
The  seed  should  be  sown  when  the  land  has  been  mois- 
tened by  rain.  In  some  instances,  pasturing  has  not 
been  found  hurtful.  In  many  places,  however,  espe- 
cially where  the  annual  rainfall  is  reasonably  ample, 
it  has  succeeded  quite  well  when  sown  in  the  spring  on 
fall  ploughed  land  and  with  a  lightly  seeded  nurse  crop 
as  2  to  4  pecks  of  oats.  In  a  normal  season,  the  oats  may 
be  cut  when  ripe,  but  in  a  dry  year  they  should  be  cut 
somewhat  high  for  hay,  as  soon  as  fully  out  in  head. 
When  sown  early  on  soils  that  blow,  the  grain  should  be 
allowed  to  reach,  the  height  of  2  or  3  inches  before  sow- 
ing the  rye  grass  seed ;  but  when  sown  on  such  soils  after 
June  first,  it  will  answer  to  sow  at  the  same  time  as  the 
nurse  crop.  It  may  be  sown  by  hand  or  with  a  hand 
seeder  specially  made  to  sow  such  grass  seeds,  which 
is  wheeled  over  the  ground  when  in  use  and  covered 


WESTERN  RYE  GRASS.  273 

with  the  harrow;  it  may  be  sown  with  some  makes  of 
grain  drill  as,  for  instance,  the  "Superior"  with  a  "ver- 
tical feeder."  To  feed  out  well,  the  seed  must  be  well 
cleaned.  It  should  be  put  in  from  1  to  3  inches  deep, 
according  to  the  soil  and  season ;  when  sown  on  soils 
that  will  drift  after  the  grain  is  up,  it  is  better  to  sow 
across  the  grain  rows  than  in  the  same  direction. 

More  commonly  this  grass  is  sown  alone,  and  when 
sown  for  seed,  it  must  be  sown  thus.  For  hay,  it  may, 
sometimes  -be  preferable  to  sow  it  with  Russian  brome 
grass  ^s  the  latter  aids  in  making  a  thicker  stand  by 
growing  between  the  bunches  of  the  rye  grass,  while  the 
former  aids  in  the  quick  curing  of  the  hay.  For  pas^ 
hire,  western  rye  grass  may  be  sown  alone  but  better 
probably  with  Russian  brome  grass  and  in  some  areas 
with  the  said  grass  and  timothy. 

When  sown  alone,  about  15  pounds  of  seed  per  acre 
is  the  correct  quantity  to  sow ;  when  sown  with  Russian 
brome  grass  7^  pounds  of  each  may  be  sown  for  hay, 
using  a  little  more  seed  for  pasture ;  when  timothy  is 
added,  the  proportions  would  be  about  6  pounds  each 
of  Russian  brome  and  western  rye  and  4  pounds  of  tim- 
othy. 

Pasturing. — Western  rye  grass  furnishes  pasture 
abundant  and  nutritious  in  the  spring  and  summer 
months,  but  loses  its  succulence  in  the  autumn,  having 
a  tendency,  like  various  other  range  grasses,  to  cure  in 
the  soil.  It  is  more  nutritious  than  Russian  brome 
grass  or  timothy,  either  as  pasture  or  hay.  Some  grow- 
ers pasture  their  meadows  for  a  time  in  the  spring  but 
under  some  conditions  this  would  be  hazardous. 


274  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Western  rye  grass  should  be 
harvested  with  much  promptness  or  it  will  lose  rapidly 
in  palatability.  When  allowed  to  get  ripe  or  nearly  so, 
before  it  is  cut,  it  will  not  be  eaten  readily  by  farm  ani- 
mals. It  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  fully  out  in  head 
which  will  be  early  in  July.  When  grown  along  with 
Russian  brome,  the  latter  will  be  further  advanced  but 
it  will  not  seriously  injure  it  for  hay. 

It  is  harvested  for  hay  with  the  mower  and  is  han- 
dled in  the  same  way  as  timothy;  it  is  easily  handled, 
being  straight  like  timothy.  The  yield  under  ordinary 
conditions  will  run  from  1  to  2  tons  per  acre,  but  under 
superior  conditions  of  cultivation  has  yielded  as  high 
as  3  to  4  tons  per  acre. 

Securing  Seed. — Western  rye  grass  seeds  freely. 
Good  average  crops  will  produce  300  to  400  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre  and  the  seed  weighs  20  pounds  per  bushel. 
But  seed  very  clean  and  good  weighs  25  pounds.  The 
crop  should  be  harvested  with  the  binder  and  when  the 
seeds  are  fully  ripe.  This  may  be  known  by  the  change 
in  the  color.  It  should  then  be  harvested  promptly  or 
there  will  be  loss  of  seed  from  shelling.  It  is  threshed 
with  the  grain  thresher  and  winnowed  with  the  fanning 
imill,  much  the  same  as  timothy.  (See  p.  75.)  The 
!seed  is  nearly  as  easily  cleaned  as  that  of  an  ordinary 
oat  crop. 

Renewing. — It  is  not  usual  to  try  to  renew  western 
rye  grass,  when  it  begins  to  fail,  but  rather  to  break  it 
up  by  ploughing  and  sow  again,  if  necessary.  It  will  fur- 
nish remunerative  crops  of  hay  or  seed  for  three  or  four 
seasons.  The  ground  then  becomes  so  settled  and  dry 


PERENNIAL  RYE  GRASS.  275 

that  it  does  not  yield  so  well;  but  it  wiU  maintain  its 
hold  on  many  soils  for,  at  least,  half  a  score  of  years. 
Like  all  cultivated  grasses  on  the  prairie,  it  is  quite  re- 
sponsive to  top  dressings  of  farmyard  manure.  There 
is  probably  no  better  way  in  which  such  manure  can 
be  applied  where  this  grass  is  grown. 

TEIIEXNIAL  RYE   GHASSES. 

Perennial  Rye  grass  (Lolium  Perenne)  is  also  called 
English  Rye  grass,  Rye  grass,  Ray  grass  and  Darnel. 
In  some  localities  it  is  chiefly  known  by  the  name  Eng- 
lish Rye  grass,  and  this  name  has  doubtless  come  to  be 
applied  to  it  because  of  the  extent  to  which  it  has  been 
cultivated  in  England.  In  that  country  there  are  sev- 
eral varieties  and  sub-varieties  named  chiefly  after 
seedsmen  or  seed-firms. 

This  grass  is  perennial  and  stoloniferous  in  its  habit 
of  growth,  but  like  timothy,  under  ordinary  conditions 
it  is  not  a  long  lived  perennial,  seldom  enduring  for  a 
longer  period  than  seven  years  and  usually  for  a  period 
considerably  shorter.  The  stems  are  numerous  and 
slender  and  grow  from  1  to  3  feet  high,  the  average  be- 
ing less  than  2. feet  rather  than  more.  Each  stem  has 
4  to  6  joints,  which  sometimes  assume  a  brownish  tint. 
The  leaves  are  numerous  and  succulent  and  of  a  darker 
green  than  those  of  Italian  rye  grass.  The  heads  are 
slender  and  from  3  to  10  inches  long  though  commonly 
not  more  than  6  inches.  In  general  appearance  peren- 
nial rye  grass  has  some  resemblance  to  quack  grass 
(Triticum  repens).  The  roots  do  not  feed  deeply. 
Stems  push  out  laterally  and  from  these  the  joints  of 
the  upright  stems  ascend. 


276  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Although  perennial  rye  grass  has  long  stood  in  the 
front  rank  among  cultivated  grasses  in  Britain,  it  may 
not  become  greatly  popular  in  this  country,  for  the  rea- 
son, prohahly,  that  in  the  sections  best  adapted  to  its 
growth,  timothy  has  stood  higher  in  favor.  While  it 
is  of  a  vigorous  habit  of  growth,  starts  early  in  the  sea- 
son and  produces  reasonably  good  grazing  and  hay,  it 
has  some  weaknesses.  Being  a  shallow  feeding  plant,  it 
is  easily  injured  by  drought ;  being  a  gross  feeding  plant 
it  is  exhaustive  on  the  soil.  It  is  too  short  lived  to  an- 
swer well  for  permanent  meadows  or  pastures  and  can- 
not stand  temperatures  that  are  quite  low  in  winter, 
nor  great  heat  in  summer.  Moreover  it  is  relatively  low 
in  nutrition  and  in  a  dry  season  produces  but  little  aft- 
ermath after  it  is  mown. 

But  under  favorable  conditions,  that  is  on  somewhat 
heavy  soils,  it  is  a  great  producer,  more  especially  of 
hay,  and  it  produces  seed  abundantly. 

Live  stock  are  fond  of  it  both  as  hay  and  pasture,  but 
its  relatively  low  nutrition  is  against  it  for  both  uses. 
It  is  not  well  able  long  to  withstand  the  crowding  of  cer- 
tain other  grasses;  hence,  under  United  States  condi- 
tions it  is  usually  better  to  sow  it  alone  or  along  with 
other  grasses  or  clovers  intended  for  meadows  of  limited 
duration.  It  has  also  been  recommended  for  lawns  but 
for  this  purpose  it  is  usually  too  short  lived. 

Distribution. — Perennial  rye  grass  is  native  to  Eur- 
ope and  probably  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  In  the  mild 
and  temperate  climates  of  England,  France  and  other 
countries  of  Europe,  it  has  long  been  cultivated,  in  Eng- 
land for  more  than  two  hundred  years  and  in  France  for 


FIG.  15. 
PERENNIAL  RYE  GRASS   (Lolium  fierenne). 

Oregon  Experiment  Station. 


PERENNIAL  RYE  GRASS.  279 

a  longer  period.  In  Britain  it  is  said  to  have  been  pop- 
ularly grown  at  least  one  hundred  years  before  the 
growing  timothy  and  orchard  grass  became  general.  In 
some  parts  of  the  United  States,  particularly  in  the 
East  and  South,  it  has  been  grown  to  some  extent  for 
nearly  a  century,  but  at  no  time  does  it  appear  to  have 
become  greatly  popular,  under  United  States  condi- 
tions, for  the  reason  probably  that  timothy  and  orchard 
grass,  the  two  great  rivals  of  perennial  rye  grass  in  its 
own  special  domain,  are  considered  superior.  This 
grass  grows  at  its  best  in  climates  that  are  temperate  and 
moist.  It  is  not  well  able  to  withstand  extremes  of 
heat  or  cold  or  drought,  consequently  its  growth  in  the 
United  States  is  likely  to  be  confined  to  areas  somewhat 
limited  in  comparison  to  the  whole  area. 

Since  this  grass  is  best  suited  to  a  climate  temperate 
and  moist,  it  grows  fairly  well  in  much  of  New  Eng- 
land, in  the  North  Atlantic  States,  south  of  New  Eng- 
land and  in  the  states  which  border  on  Lakes  Erie  and 
Ontario.  But  the  most  popular  conditions  for  its 
growth  are  probably  found  in  Washington  and  Oregon, 
west  of  the  Cascade  mountains.  In  the  upper  Missis- 
sippi basin  it  does  not  very  well  withstand  the  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold.  At  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, St.  Anthony  Park,  the  author  was  able, to  secure  a 
good  growth  of  this  grass  in  summer,  but  it  died  in 
winter.  In  the  southern  states,  the  summer  heat  is 
too  great  for  this  grass,  and  in  the  semi-arid  belt  and 
southwestern  states,  it  is  quite  unsuited  to  the  average 
conditions  pertaining  to  plant  growth. 

In  Canada,  perennial  rye  grass  is  never  likely  to  be 


280  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

given  an  important  place  except  in  Southern  Ontario 
and  western  British  Columbia  the  winter  climate  is  too 
cold  for  growing  it  in  the  very  best  form,  and  in  these 
orchard  grass  and  especially  timothy  are  considered  su- 
perior. 

Soils. — The  best  soils  for  perennial  rye  grass  are 
those  that  are  moist,  that  contain  a  considerable  content 
of  clay,  and  at  the  same  time  are  rich  in  nutriment. 
Light  sands,  low  in  fertility,  are  ill  adapted  to  its 
growth.  'Nor  is  it  well  able  to  fight  its  battle  on  the 
stiffest  clay.  In  Europe  the  many  variations  which 
characterize  this  grass  have  given  it  varied  adaptation 
to  soil  conditions  which  are  not  easily  specified.  But 
few  grasses  respond  more  readily  to  applications  of  ma- 
nure, solid  or  liquid,  or  to  suitable  dressings  with  com- 
mercial fertilizers. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Where  the  conditions  are  fa- 
vorable for  the  growth  of  this  grass,  its  place  in  the  ro- 
tation would  be  much  the  same  as  for  timothy.  (See  p. 
57.)  Briefly  stated  it  would  be  in  a  rotation  extend- 
ing from  3  to  7  years.  It  would  come  in  properly  after 
a  cleaning  crop,  and  would  precede  a  crop  which  feeds 
well  on  decaying  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  preparation  of  the  soil  suit- 
able for  perennial  rye  grass  is  about  the  same  as  what 
is  suitable  for  timothy.  (See  p.  58.)  Stated  briefly 
the  seed  bed  should  be  clean,  finely  pulverized  near  the 
surface,  firm  and  moist,  and  may  be  made  fall  or 
spring.  But  since  the  seed  is  relatively  high  in  germin- 
ating power,  a  stand  may  be  more  easily  secured  though 


PERENNIAL  RYE  GRASS.  231 

liiu  preparation  has  been  defective  than  with  some  other 
grasses. 

Solving. — Perennial  rye  grass  may  be  sown  in  the 
autumn  or  in  the  spring.  Early  sowing  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred both  seasons  when  practicable,  that  the  plants 
may  enter  the  winter  in  a  strong  condition  in  the  one- 
case,  and  that  they  may  better  withstand  dry  weather  in 
summer  in  the  other.  August  and  September  would 
be  favorable  months  for  autumn  sowing.  In  the  spring- 
it  is  usually  considered  preferable  to  defer  sowing  until 
the  seed  may  be  sown  by  hand  and  then  covered  with  the 
harrow. 

The  seed  may  be  sown  alone  or  in  certain  combina- 
tions. When  wanted  for  soiling  food,  it  is  usually 
sown  alone ;  when  wanted  for  hay  it  may  be  sown  with 
advantage  with  red  clover,  as  both  mature  early;  when 
wanted  for  pasture  it  may  be  sown  alone,  but  better 
with  grasses  not  too  aggressive  in  character.  In  the 
Xorth,  perennial  rye  grass,  medium  red  clover  and  tim- 
othy would  make  a  suitable  combination  on  average 
soils,  and  in  the  South  perennial  rye  grass,  orchard  grass 
and  tall  oat  grass.  As  with  all  varieties  of  grass,  it  is 
commonly  sown  by  hand,  and  covered  with  harrow  or 
roller  or  by  using  both. 

.When  sown  alone  not  less  than  1  bushel  of  seed  is 
required  nor  more  than  2  bushels.  When  sown  with 
red  clover  12  pounds  of  the  rye  grass  and  10  pounds  of 
the  clover  should  ordinarily  suffice.  When  timothy  is 
added  to  the  mixture  the  amounts  of  rye  grass  and  clover 
respectively  should  be  reduced.  With  orchard  grass 
and  tall  oat  grass  in  the  South  12  pounds  of  the  rye 


282  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

grass  should  ordinarily  suffice,  but  there  may  be  good 
reasons  for  varying  the  same  considerably. 

Pasturing. — Perennial  rye  grass  furnishes  much  pas- 
ture early  in  the  season  but  not  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
same.  Although  it  is  relished  by  live  stock  before  the 
time  of  coming  out  in  head  it  is  not  so  relished  after 
that  stage  is  reached,  consequently  when  it  is  pastured 
it  should  be  kept  grazed  down  with  at  least  reasonable 
closeness.  Nor  does  it  stand  grazing  as  well  as  some 
other  grasses.  Consequently  it  is  more  frequently  grown 
for  hay  or  for  soiling  than  for  pasture.  But  on  heavy 
soils  it  is  much  better  for  grazing  than  on  those  opposite 
in  character. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Perennial  rye  grass  should  be 
cut  for  hay  when  in  blossom  and  in  the  early  stage  of 
bloom.  Beyond  this  stage  it  becomes  woody  quickly. 
The  method  of  cutting  and  curing  are  usually  the  same 
as  for  timothy.  (See  p.  72.)  When  grown  alone  this 
grass  is  probably  better  adapted  to  soiling  than  to  any 
other  use,  since  it  is  ready  early  in  the  season  and  when 
cut  about  the  stage  of  coming  into  head  or  sooner  quick- 
ly grows  up  again. 

Securing  Seed. — This  grass  is  a  heavy  producer  of 
seed.  On  rich  soils  it  is  claimed  that  it  has  produced  as 
much  as  40  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  This  amount, 
however,  is  far  beyond  the  average.  There  is  perhaps 
no  better  way  of  harvesting  this  crop  for  seed  than  by 
cutting  it  with  the  binder,  and  curing  in  the  long  rather 
than  in  the  round  shock,  and  threshing  with  the  grain 
separator.  But  there  would  seem  to  be  no  good  reasons 
why  the  seed  should  not  be  gathered  with  the  stripper. 


ITALIAN  RYE  GRASS.  283 

This,  of  course,  would  leave  the  haulm  upon  the 
ground,  but  in  any  event  it  is  not  of  very  much  value 
for  food.  Because  of  the  abundance  of  the  seed  pro- 
duction, the  seed  does  not  command  so  high  a  price  as 
that  of  many  of  the  other  grasses.  The  temptation, 
therefore,  is  ever  present  with  seedsmen  who  are  so 
minded,  to  mix  the  seed  with  that  of  other  grasses  which 
are  higher.  With  some  of  these  the  fraud  is  not  easily 
detected  by  the  unskilled.  Seed  crops  tend  much  to  ex- 
haust the  fertility  of  the  land  which,  of  course,  is  so  far 
an  objection  to  growing  them. 

Renewing. — Since  rye  grass  is  grown  in  short  rather 
than  in  long  rotations  it  is  not  usually  necessary  to  try 
and  renew  it,  when  the  stand  secured  is  only  partial.  It 
is  usually  considered  more  profitable  to  prepare  land 
and  sow  again. 

ITALIAN    EYE    GKASS. 

Italian  Rye  grass  (Lolium  Halicum)  is  so  named 
doubtless  from  the  fact  that  it  has  long  been  grown  in 
Northern  Italy,  from  which  it  has  been  distributed 
into  various  countries.  It  is  also  sometimes  called  Ray 
grass.  It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  introduced  into 
Western  Europe  until  a  period  considerably  later  than 
the  introduction  of  perennial  rye  grass. 

Italian  rye  grass  grows  to  the  height  of  2  to  3  feet. 
The  leaves  are  abundant.  The  heads  are  slender,  from 
6  to  12  inches  long  and  sometimes  nodding.  The  fib- 
rous roots  have  much  power  to  gather  food  from  the 
land  on  which  it  grows.  The  leaves  are  of  a  dark  green 
and  have  a  peculiar  "glint"  which  makes  a  field  of  this 
grass  look  very  beautiful  when  swayed  by  the  wind. 


284  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

This  crass  may  be  distinguished  from  other  rye 
grasses  by  having  short,  armed  or  bearded  spikelets,  and 
by  the  quicker,  larger  and  more  vigorous  character  of 
the  growth.  It  also  differs  from  perennial  rye  grass 
in  having  broader  leaves,  in  the  better  feeding  quality 
of  the  grass  and  in  its  being  less  permanent. 

Italian  rye  grass  is  biennial  or  perennial,  frequently 
lasting  two  to  three  years.  Under  some  conditions,  how- 
ever, it  is  an  annual.  The  difference  in  duration  arises 
doubtless  from  a  difference  in  conditions  of  climate  and 
soil  and  from  a  difference  in  the  treatment  of  the  plants. 
In  climates  with  stern  winters  it  is  an  annual.  It 
would  seem  to  stand  foremost  in  rapidity  of  growth 
throughout  the  entire  season  of  vegetation.  As  many  as 
eight  or  ten  cuttings  have  been  made  in  a  single  season 
under  forced  conditions  of  growth.  It  has  been  known 
to  produce  soiling  food  in  five  to  six  weeks  from  the  date 
of  sowing  and  every  few  weeks  subsequently,  until 
the  arrival  of  winter.  But  to  grow  thus  rapidly  the  con- 
ditions for  growth  must  be  very  favorable.  It  will  en- 
dure any  amount  of  forcing  by  way  of  irrigation  and 
fertilization,  the  returns  being  usually  proportionate  to 
i  he  attention  thus  bestowed  upon  it.  It  forms  a  dense 
turf  while  it  lasts,  but  it  is  of  course  short  lived.  It 
is  one  of  the  earliest  grasses  in  spring  and  one  of  the 
last  to  cease  growing  in  the  autumn.  Some  writers 
claim  that  it  will  endure  both  heat  and  drought  well. 
Others  say  that  it  does  not  well  endure  drought  and  this 
view  would  seem  to  be  correct.  It  cannot  live  through 
the  cold  winters  of  the  northern  states  unless  under 
very  exceptional  conditions. 


ITALIAN  RYE  GRASS.  295 

It  is  quite  palatable,  even  more  so,  it  is  thought,  than 
perennial  rve  grass.  It  is  valuable  both  as  pasture  and 
hay,  but  is  not  adapted  to  either  permanent  pastures  or 
meadows.  Its  highest  use  is  in  furnishing  soiling  food 
for  dairy  cows  and  other  stock.  Under  some  condi- 
tions a  sufficient  area  of  this  grass  would  furnish  soil 
ing  food  during  all  the  season  of  growth.  In  this  re- 
spect it  is  probably  only  rivalled  by  alfalfa.  In  nutri- 
tion, Italian  rye  grass  does  not  stand  so  high  as  some 
other  grasses. 

Distribution. — Italian  rye  grass  is  native  to  Europe. 
In  Lombardy  it  is  thought  its  cultivation  first  began 
many  years  ago,  and  more  especially  in  the  irrigated 
-  districts  of  that  country.  It  has  been  cultivated  in 
France  for  at  least  a  hundred  years,  and  in  England 
and  Scotland  for  more  than  half  a  century.  For  sev- 
eral decades  it  has  been  tried  in  some  parts  of  the  Unit- 
ed States.  Notwithstanding,  its  cultivation  has  not  be- 
come very  general  in  any  section  of  the  country. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  it  is  equally  well  suited  to 
all  the  climates  of  Europe.  This  claim  is  somewhat 
extravagant,  as  it  will  not  endure  extreme  cold.  It 
succeeds  best  in  moist  equable  temperatures,  hence  the 
best  results  should  be  obtained  from  growing  it,  the 
soil  conditions  being  correct,  in  the  Central  North  At- 
lantic states  and  in  those  of  the  Pacific  coast  north- 
ward. 

In  the  United  States  good  crops  of  Italian  rye  grass 
may  be  grown  on  suitable  soils  in  nearly  every  state  in 
the  Union,  but  in  the  southwestern  states  and  in  the 
Rocky  Mountain  states  far  northward,  it  would  be  nee- 


285  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

essary  to  irrigate  to  grow  it  successfully,  unless  on  the 
higher  bench  lands  adjacent  to  the  mountains.  In  the 
northern  states  from  Montana  eastward,  it  must,  as 
a  rule,  be  grown  for  what  it  will  produce  in  one  season, 
as  in  these  it  will  succumb  to  the  cold  in  winter.  In 
the  southern  states  it  will  endure  longer.  But  it  should 
render  the  best  service  North  or  South  when  grown  for 
what  it  will  produce  in  one  season,  as  it  so  frequently 
succumbs  to  the  cold  of  winter.  It  should  render  best 
service  North  or  South  where  it  can  be  grown  under 
irrigation  and  to  provide  soiling  food. 

This  grass  could  doubtless  be  grown  in  Ontario  and 
Quebec,  but  could  not  be  expected  to  endure  the  cold 
of  winter  in  these  Provinces  of  Canada.  It  is  not  like- 
ly to  prove  a  marked  success  in  the  maritime  provinces 
of  that  country,  or  on  the  western  prairies,  but  it  ought 
to  succeed  at  least  reasonably  well  in  British  Columbia. 

Soils. — Italian  rye  grass  will  grow  well  on  a  va- 
riety of  soils.  Being  a  gross  feeding  plant  and  a  rapid 
grower,  it  does  best  on  lands  rich  in  the  ingredients  that 
promote  growth  and  in  a  mechanical  condition  favor- 
able to  the  same.  It  will  grow  well,  therefore,  on  moi3t 
alluvial  and  calcareous  loams  or  marls,  on  moist  rich 
loamy  sands,  on  clays  of  medium  tenacity,  or  on  slough 
lands,  that  have  been  drained  and  that  are  not  too  peaty 
in  character.  It  will  not  grow  so  well  on  tenacious 
clays,  nor  will  it  give  very  good  results  on  dry  soils 
or  worn  lands  of  any  kind,  or  on  wet  soils,  notwith- 
standing that  it  is  so  well  fitted  for  being  grown  under 
irrigation.  It  would  not  be  easy  to  make  land  too  rich 
for  growing  this  grass  at  its  best. 


ITALIAN  RYE  GRASS.  287 

Preparing  Hie  Soil: — Tlie  preparation  of  the  soil  for 
this  grass  is  much  the  same  as  for  orchard  grass  (see  p. 
138. )  It  is  particularly  essential  that  the  seed  bed  shall 
be  moist  or  the  rapid  growth  expected  from  the  grass 
will  not  be  forthcoming.  In  order  to  accomplish  this 
considerable  labor  may  sometimes  be  necessary  when 
preparing  the  seed  bed  for  being  sown  in  a  dry  autumn. 

Sowing: — In  the  Northern  States  and  in  Canada, 
the  seed  of  Italian  rye  grass  must  be  sown  in  the 
spring,  otherwise  the  young  plants  will  in  many  in- 
stances perish  in  the  winter.  In  order  to  make  the 
most  of  the  one  season's  growth,  it  should  of  course  be 
sown  in  the  early  spring ;  in  the  Southern  States, 
after  the  autumn  rains  begin  to  fall,  from  August  on- 
ward. It  is  then  ready  for  cutting  or  pasturing  early 
the  following  spring.  October  is  a  favorite  month  in 
which  to  sow.  It  is  commonly  sown  by  hand  and  is 
seldom  sown  in  mixtures. 

There  would  not  seem  to  be  any  advantage  from  sow- 
ing it  in  mixtures  of  any  of  the  winter  cereals.  The 
sand  vetch  would  answer  better,  as  the  food  would  then 
be  in  better  balance,  and  still  better  probably  to  sow 
with  crimson  clover,  as  the  two  plants  would  be  ready 
for  the  first  cutting  about  the  same  time.  It  is  not  ad- 
visable to  sow  the  seed  along  with  other  grass  seeds  to 
make  permanent  pasture  as  it  is  short  lived,  and,  in 
dying,  would  for  the  time  being  make  vacancies  in  the 
pasture.  But  there  may  be  conditions  when  it  would 
be  advisable  to  sow  it  for  temporary  pasture  with  a  view 
to  tide  over,  for  the  time  being,  a  shortage  in  pasture. 

The  seed  weighs  18  to  22  pounds  to  the  bushel.     The 


288  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

amount  to  sow  should  be  varied  with  the  soil  and  the  use 
that  is  to  be  made  of  the  food.  Thick  sowing  ie  neces- 
sary on  very  rich  soils  where  growth  fine  in  character  is 
wanted.  The  amounts  of  seed  mentioned  as  the  proper 
amounts  to  sow,  run  all  the  way  from  20  to  50  pounds 
per  acre,  biit,  in  the  judgment  of  the  author,  from  20 
to  30  pounds  should  be  sufficient.  When  sown  with 
crimson  clover,  10  pounds  each  of  the  rye  grass  and 
clover  under  average  conditions  would  be  proper 
amounts  to  sow. 

Pasturing. — Although  as  previously  intimated,  Ital- 
ian rye  grass  is  not  valuable  as  permanent  pasture, 
it  furnishes  excellent  temporary  grazing.  When  de- 
voted to  such  use,  however,  it  should  be  kept  well  grazed 
to  prevent  the  plants  from  reaching  the  earing  stage,  as 
like  other  grass  pastures  they  will  then  produce  more 
and  better  grazing.  In  the  far  South  it  will  produce 
winter  grazing  at  a  time  when  both  Johnson  grass  and 
Bermuda  grass  are  dormant.  The  color  of  the  butter 
made  from  the  milk  of  cows  grazed  on  it  hae  been 
praised.  Because  of  its  great  power  to  take  up  fertiliz- 
ers quickly,  its  growth  may  be  stimulated  by  applying 
certain  of  these,  as  may  be  desired,  either  when  grazing 
this  grass  or  growing  it  for  hay. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Owing  to  the  rapidity  with 
which  Italian  rye  grass  grows,  it  may  be  made  to  pro- 
duce two  or  more  cuttings  a  year  of  hay  and  several 
cuttings  of  soiling  food.  When  irrigated,  the  water 
should  be  applied  at  once  after  each  cutting.  It  is  then 
also  that  liquid  manures  and  other  forcing  fertilizers 
ought  to  be  applied.  This  is  frequently  done  in  Great 


ITALIAN  RYE  GRASS.  289 

Britain  and  also  in  some  countries  on  the  continent. 
It  should  be  cut  for  hay  when  coming  nicely  into 
bloom  and  for  soiling  food  after  it  has  made  sufficient 
growth  to  make  it  worth  while  cutting  it.  In  Louisiana 
it  has  been  cut  for  hay  as  early  as  April.  And  in  some 
parts  of  the  South  it  has  been  cut  for  soiling  food  in 
December,  from  seed  sown  earlier  in  the  autumn.  Un- 
der favorable  conditions  several  tons  of  cured  hay  are 
harvested  per  acre.  The  mode  of  harvesting  for  hay 
is  about  the  same  as  would  be  suitable  for  timothy 
(see  p.  72). 

Securing  Seed. — This  grass,  like  perennial  rye  grass, 
seeds  freely.  A  seed  crop  and  one  hay  crop  at  least 
should  be  obtained  the  same  season,  and  also  a  seed 
crop  and  more  than  one  soiling  crop.  Whether  seed 
should  be  taken  from  the  first  or  second  cutting  should 
depend  on  conditions  such  as  relate  to  climate  and 
growth.  The  aim  should  be  to  have  the  seed  crop  ma- 
ture when  the  weather  is  usually  favorable  for  harvest- 
ing the  same.  It  should  also  be  taken  from  that  cut- 
ting for  the  season  in  which  is  found  fullness  of  growth 
without  excessive  rankness.  The  seed  may  be  harvest- 
ed with  the  binder,  dried  sufficiently  in  long  shocks  and 
threshed  with  an  ordinary  grain  thresher.  The  yield 
of  seed  from  an  ordinary  crop  should  be  not  less  than 
20  bushels  per  acre.  The  seed  is  grown  to  some  ex- 
tent in  the  counties  of  Polk,  Beriton  and  Del  'Xorte, 
California. 

Renewing. — It  would  seem  possible  to  renew  this 
grass  by  scattering  seed  over  the  sod  every  year  or  every 
second  year,  at  a  suitable  season  and  harrowing  it  care- 


290  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

fully.  But  it  is  questionable  if,  as  a  rule,  such  re 
newal  would  be  profitable,  as  after  a  time,  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  would  be  much  depleted  unless  heavily  fer- 
tilized, and  its  mechanical  condition  would  become  such 
as  to  prove  less  favorable  to  abundant  production  than 
if  the  seed  were  sown  on  newly  ploughed  ground  and  in 
proper  rotation.  Sowing  afresh,  therefore,  on  properly 
prepared  land  is  preferable  to  renewing. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

MISCELLANEOUS  GRASSES. 

In  this  chapter  will  be  discussed  several  grasses,  each 
of  which  is  possessed  of  more  or  less  value  under  cul- 
tivation. Wire  grass  (Carex  vulpinoidea)  is  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  list,  because  of  its  great  value,  but  recent- 
ly discovered  by  the  manufacturer.  Then  follows  Texas 
blue  grass  which  promises  much  to  the  farmers  of  the 
South  in  furnishing  winter  grazing.  After  these  come 
certain  grasses  which  have  been  found  of  more  or  less 
value  to  agriculturists  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
but  which  are  not  so  generally  grown,  as  nearly  all 
those  previously  discussed.  These  are  Rough  Stalked 
Meadow  grass,  Fowl  Meadow  grass,  Rescue  grass, 
Sheep's  Fescue,  Carpet  grass,  Velvet  grass  and  Aus- 
tralian Saltbush.  Lastly,  the  discussion  of  those  grasses 
is  taken  up  which  give  promise  of  considerable  value 
under  cultivation  and  yet  the  degree  of  that  value  has 
not  been  demonstrated  through  cultivating  them.  But 
two  are  included  in  the  list,  viz.,  Blue  Joint  (Cala- 
magrostis  canadensis)  and  Blue  Grama  (Bouteloua 
oligostacliya) . 

WIRE    GRASS. 

Wire  grass  (Carex  vulpinoidea)  is  a  grass,  the 
growth  of  which  is  confined  to  marshes.  It  is  not  to 
be  confounded  with  various  other  grasses,  which  grow 


292  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

on  dry  soils  and  which  are  frequently  designated  wire 
grass,  as  for  instance  Kentucky  blue  grass  (Poa  pra- 
tensis).  Wire  grass  is  so  named,  doubtless,  from  the 
tough  character  of  the  stems,  so  tough  that  they  resist 
distension  in  a  marked  degree  without  breaking. 

This  grass  is  a  perennial,  which  grows  to  the  height 
of  about  two  feet  generally.  Usually  much  of  the 
growth  is  made  while  the  soil,  which  produces  it,  is  yet 
covered  with  water  for  a  short  distance  above  the  sur- 
face. The  water  gradually  subsides  as  the  season  ad- 
vances and  has  entirely  disappeared  from  the  surface 
by  the  time  that  the  grass  is  ready  for  being  harvested. 
The  stems  are  relatively  numerous.  The  panicles  pro- 
duce seed  if  the  spring  should  happen  to  be  so  dry  as 
to  stunt  the  grass  in  its  growth;  but  in  ordinary  sea- 
sons and  under  condition?  which  favor  vigorous  growth, 
it  is  said  that  it  does  not  produce  seed.  It  has  a  creep- 
ing root-stock  and  the  roots  form  so  strong  a  turf  that 
heavy  loads  can  be  driven  across  wire  grass  meadows, 
which  rest  upon  a  cushion  of  miry  peat  oftentimes 
several  feet  deep. 

This  grass  does  not  begin  to  grow  until  the  frost 
leaves  the  ground  for  some  distance  below  the  surface ; 
but  it  grows  rapidly  in  the  late  spring  and  early  sum- 
mer; and  is  ready  for  being  harvested  in  July.  It  re- 
tains its  greenness  for  several  weeks;  hence,  the  sea- 
son of  harvesting  is  frequently  prolonged.  It  is  prac- 
tically useless  as  food  for  live  stock,  owing  to  the  woody 
character  of  the  stems.  It  has  been  used  to  some  ex- 
tent by  upholsterers,  but  now  it  is  chiefly  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  binder  twine,  furniture,  mats,  rng*  mid 


WIRE  GRASS.  293 

articles  of  clothing,  all  of  which  are  enduring.  The  ar- 
ticles made  from  it  are  not  only  useful,  but  they  are 
unique  and  attractive;  even  ladies'  hats  are  now  being 
manufactured  from  this  material. 

Distribution. — Wire  grass  is  native  to  America. 
While  more  or  less  of  it  is  found  in  various  states  and 
provinces,  the  chief  centres  of  production  at  the  present 
time  are  the  numerous  and  large  marshes  of  Northern 
Minnesota,  Northern  Wisconsin  and  Manitoba  in  Can- 
ada. The  area  of  this  grass  is  decreasing  in  some  quar- 
ters with  the  gradual  recession  of  the  waters  of  the 
marshes.  In  others  it  is  increasing  as  in  the  gradual 
lowering  of  the  waters  of  lakes  with  sedgy  shores. 

Soils. — This  grass  grows  only  in  poat  soils,  or,  more 
properly  in  marshes  or  bogs,  in  which  the  peat  is  de- 
cayed more  or  less  but  only  on  and  near  the  surface.  It 
is  essential  to  the  life  of  this  grass  that  a  certain  de- 
gree of  watery  saturation  shall  be  preserved  during 
much  of  the  year;  and  yet  the  water  should  not  rise 
much  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  for  any  consid- 
erable length  of  time  or  the  grass  would  perish.  On 
the  other  hand  where  too  little  water  is  present  and 
for  too  short  a  portion  of  the  year,  wire  grass  will  give 
way  to  other  forms  of  grass,  possessed  of  higher  food 
value. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Of  course,  wire  grass  -is  not 
a  rotation  plant,  in  the  ordinary  sense  in  which  the 
term  is  used,  and  yet  there  is  a  sort  of  rotation  in  which 
nature  has  placed  it.  In  the  gradual  evolution  of  the 
lower  forms  of  plant  life,  it  has  a  place  between  the 
mosses  and  bushes,  which  cover  muskegs  and  marshes; 


2J4  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

and  the  rushes  and  sedges  which  grow  around  the  edges 
of  certain  lakes  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  redtop  and 
blue  joint  grasses  on  the  other. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — While  nature  sows  wire  grass, 
the  sowing  can  only  prove  effective  where  the  conditions 
are  favorable  to  the  sowing  of  the  grass.  Where  the 
watery  saturation  is  excessive,  as  in  muskegs  or  in  cer- 
tain shallow  lakes,  the  waters  must  he  lowered  hy  na- 
ture or  hy  man.  In  settled  states,  recession  in  the 
waters  advances  with  the  advance  of  cultivation  into 
lands  not  previously  tilled,  hence,  the  growths  men- 
tioned, as  preceding  wire  grass  are  gradually  being  sup- 
planted by  the  same.  Particularly  is  this  true  of  peat 
bottomed  lakes.  When  the  recession  advances  beyond  a 
certain  degree,  the  wire  grass  fails  to  be  supplanted 
in  turn  by  blue  joint  or, redtop.  These  changes  made 
by  nature  are  slow.  In  many  instances,  it  is  possible 
to  hasten  them,  as  when  the  outlets  of  these  watery  sit- 
uations are  of  such  a  character  that  the  waters  may  be 
in  part  drawn  off.  When  thus  lowered  sufficiently, 
fire  may  be  made  to  run  over  the  surface  of  the  mus- 
keg in  the  spring,  while  the  frost  is  still  near  the  sur- 
face to  kill  the  tea  bushes  and  burn  the  moss.  If  this 
were  done  in  the  dry  autumn,  the  fire  would  burn  down 
into  the  peat.  With  the  bushes  dead  and  the  moss  burn- 
ed, nature  does  the  rest.  Where  she  gets  seed  enough 
to  sow  whole  marshes  so  as  to  transform  them  into 
meadows  in  two  or  three  seasons  is  in  a  sense  one  of  the 
mysterious  things.  Equally  mysterious  is  the  source  of 
the  seed  supply,  which,  under  certain  conditions,  will 
transform  a  wire  grass  meadow,  in  a  few  seasons,  into 


WIRE  GRASS.  295 

one  of  blue  joint  or  redtop.  Something  approximating 
to  the  above,  is  the  preparation  of  soil,  required  for 
the  introduction  of  wire  grass.  Where  the  grass  has 
not  been  cut  the  previous  year,  it  is  necessary  to  burn 
it  off  with  fire.  This  is  best  done  in  the  spring  while 
the  frost  is  yet  up  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Dead 
grass  amid  the  green  crop  would  render  the  latter  un- 
fit for  manufacturing  purposes. 

Sowing. — From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  ap- 
parent that,  up  to  the  present,  nature  has  been  found 
sufficient  to  the  task  of  sowing  the  seed;  the  attempt 
by  man  to  sow  it  has  never  probably  been  made;  yet 
man  has  a  duty  to  perform,  where  these  meadows  are 
to  be  made  permanent.  Attention  must  needs  be  given 
to  the  water  supply  and  to  the  removal  of  the  same. 
This  cannot  always  be  done,  but  in  many  instances,  it 
can.  Many  of  those  wire  grass  meadows  are  found  in 
lowlands,  where  shallow  lakes  abound.  This  makes 
it  possible  to  lower  the  water  so  as  to  drain  the  meadow 
in  getting  it"  ready  for  harvesting;  such  draining  is 
further  facilitated  by  the  presence  of  certain  open 
ditches  cut  through  the  meadows  where  needed.  It  is 
also  possible  by  damming  up  the  outlet  to  flood  the 
land  sufficiently  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  since  in 
some  of  those  meadows  the  fall  is  not  more  than  one 
foot  per  mile. 

Pasturing. — Wire  grass  does  not  furnish  good  pas- 
ture. Live  stock  will  not  eat  it,  if  they  can  get  other 
grass,  owing  to  its  toughness  and  probably  to  its  want 
of  palatability. 

HarvestinQ. — The  harvesting  of  wire  grass  begins 


296  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

early  in  July  or  as  soon  as  the  grass  is  fully  headed 
out  and  it  may  be  continued  until  the  autumn,  when 
necessary,  but  the  late  cut  grass  is  not  nearly  so  valu- 
able as  that  cut  early.  The  cutting  is  done  by  self- 
rake  reapers  which  leaves  the  grass  in  sheaves,  where 
it  dries  on  the  ground.  Men  follow  the  reapers  and 
straighten  the  sheaves  for  the  "gleaners."  When  the 
grass  is  dry  enough,  the  gleaners  follow ;  lift  the  sheaves 
from  the  ground  and  bind  them.  They  are  then  drawn 
on  wagons  to  hay  sheds  and  are  finally  baled  for  ship- 
ment to  the  factory.  The  horses  which  do  the  work 
on  the  meadows  are  shod  with  bog  shoes,  and  the  wag- 
ons have  wide  tires.  Late  in  the  season,  the  grass  is 
cut  and  bound  with  binders. 

Securing  Seed. — No  attempts  have  probably  been 
made  to  secure  the  seed  of  wire  grass  and  it  is  ques- 
tionable, if  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  attention  to  the 
matter  for  many  years,  if  indeed  ever.  The  grass 
seems  to  require  dwarfing  or  stunting  in  order  to  make 
it  produce  seed.  The  seed  is  triangular  in  outline, 
and  ripens  in  July.  It  could  most  conveniently  be 
gathered  probably  by  the  stripper  but  may  be  also 
harvested  and  threshed  like  the  seed  of  other  grain. 

Renewing. — The  only  sense  in  which  it  would  seem 
possible  to  renew  this  grass,  where  it  begins  to  fail 
would  seem  to  be  by  regulating  the  water  supply.  As  it 
is  necessary  to  keep  the  grass  practically  free  from  other 
grasses,  where  redtop  and  blue  joint  come  in  around 
the  edges  of  the  meadow,  the  only  practical  way  to  re- 
move them  would  be  to  submerge  them  until  they 
would  vanish.  There  are  also  certain  grasses  of  the 


TEXAS  BLUB  GRASS.  297 

sedgy  order  which  grow  amid  the  wire  grass  in  the 
depressions.  How  to  get  rid  of  these  is  not  easily  ap- 
parent without  lowering  the  water  unduly  for  other 
portions  of  the  meadow;  nor  has  it  been  determined 
how  long  a  wire  grass  meadow  can  he  maintained  and 
whether  the  same  can  be  mowed  every  year  without  in- 
terruption. It  is  probable,  however,  that  with  the 
proper  regulation  of  the  water  supply,  those  meadows 
may  be  rendered  permanent  for  many  years. 

It  is  fortunate  that  valuable  uses  have  been  found 
to  which  this  grass  has  been  put.  The  discovery  is 
making  highly  productive  thousands  and  tens  of  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  peat  lands  that  must  otherwise  have 
remained  unproductive  for  many  years. 

TEXAS   BLUE    GRASS. 

Texas  blue  grass  (Poa  arichnifera)  might  well  be 
named  the  blue  grass  of  the  South,  as  it  promises  to 
do  for  much  of  the  Southern  country  what  blue  grass 
has  done  for  the  North.  As  it  becomes  known  it  is 
more  prized  in  the  South,  where,  along  with  Ber- 
muda grass,  it  furnishes  grazing  practically  all  the 
year. 

This  grass  has  considerable  resemblance  to  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  not  only  in  appearance,  but  also  in  its  habit 
of  growth.  It  is  taller,  however,  the  stems  of  the  latter 
growing  to  the  height  of  1  to  3  feet.  The  leaves  are  long 
and  slender.  The  panicles  are  4  to  6  inches  long  and 
densely  flowered.  The  roots  are  creeping. 

Texas  blue  grass  is  a  hardy  perennial  and  one  that 
has  a  vigorous  habit  of  growth. 


2^)8      GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

It  grows  quite  vigorously  during  much  of  the  win- 
ter in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  South.  It  has  been 
stated  that  it  has  been  known  to  grow  10  inches  in 
as  many  days  in  Texas  at  that  season.  It  blooms  in 
April  or  May  according  to  the  latitude.  Even  as 
far  north  as  Tennessee,  it  will  keep  green  and  furnish 
grazing  through  all  or  nearly  all  the  winter.  It  soon 
forms  a  dense  turf  which  stands  grazing  well.  Al- 
though the  plants  produce  seed  readily,  the  seed  is  woolly 
in  character,  hence  it  is  not  easily  handled  or  sown. 
It  is  more  easily  propagated  by  means  of  root  cuttings. 

It  is  much  relished  by  all  kinds  of  stock  and  stands 
grazing  well,  hence  it  is  well  adapted  for  permanent 
pasture.  It  will  make  food  for  hay,  if  cut  in  season, 
but  its  highest  use  is  to  provide  winter  pastures.  After 
being  cut  for  hay  or  grazed  in  spring,  it  pushes  up 
readily^  when  the  fall  rains  come  after  the  rest  of  sum- 
mer. 

It  is  the  complement  of  blue  grass  in  the  South,  a 
plant  with  nearly  all  the  good  qualities  of  the  former 
and  adapted  to  southern  conditions. 

Contrasted  with  Kentucky  blue  grass,  the  Texas  blue 
is  taller  and  of  stronger  but  coarser  growth.  The 
rhizomes  are  also  larger  and  stronger.  It  stands  more 
drought  and  heat  than  blue  grass,  and  is  even  better 
fitted  for  winter  grazing,  but  it  will  not  stand  low  tem- 
peratures as  well  as  the  other. 

Distribution. — Texas  blue  grass  is  a  southern  grass. 
It  is  native  to  Texas  and  probably  some  other  parts  of 
the  South.  It  is  said  that  it  was  first  brought  into 
cultivation  by  Geo.  H.  Hogan  of  Texas.  It  has  been 


FIG.  1 6. 
TEXAS  BLUE  GRASS  (Poa  arichnifera). 

U.  a.  Department  of  Agriculture; 
Washington;  D.  C. 


TEXAS  BLUE  GRASS.  299 

tried  in  all  the  states  of  the  South  and  Southwest,  and 
for  all  or  nearly  all  of  these  it  lias  much  promise. 
It  has  been  found  hardy  as  far  north  as  Ames,  Iowa. 
In  Kansas,  it  has  given  no  little  satisfaction 

It  has  not  been  fully  determined  as  to  how  far  north 
it  'may  be  grown  with  profit,  but  it  would  seem  safe 
to  say,  that  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  grow  it  where 
full  crops  of  Kentucky  blue  grass  can  be  grown,  since 
the  latter  will  doubtless  be  more  valuable  in  its  own 
proper  field. 

Soils. — Texas  blue  grass  will  grow  on  any  good  soil. 
It  does  best  on  alluvial  soils,  but  all  soils  that  will 
grow  corn  and  cotton  will  grow  this  grass.  It  will 
also  grow  on  worn  lands,  but  it  requires  a  longer  time 
to  establish  it  on  these. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  preparation  of  the  soil  is 
virtually  the  same  as  for  Bermuda  grass  (see  p.  110), 
especially  when  the  root  cuttings  are  planted.  This 
means  that  it  is  possible  to  establish  it  on  worn  land, 
that  is  now  growing  such  products  as  sage  brush  and 
sassafras. 

Sowing  or  Planting. — Texas  blue  grass  is  frequently 
sown,  but  owing  to  the  woolly  character  of  the  seed  it 
is  not  easily  sown.  It  may  be  sown  in  the  spring  or 
the  early  autumn,  preferably  the  latter,  and  with  or 
without  a  nurse  crop,  but  preferably  with  one,  if  the 
nurse  crop  is  not  too  thickly  sown.  The  woolliness  of 
the  seed  makes  it  difficult  to  sow  even  by  hand.  It 
rnay  be,  however,  that  the  improved  seeder  which  is 
driven  like  a  wheelbarrow  will  sow  it  all  right  and 


300  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

with  ease  to  the  sower.  About  10  pounds  of  seed  per 
acre  ought  to  suffice. 

This  grass  can  be  established  at  least  as  quickly  and 
even  more  surely  by  planting  the  divided  roots.  The 
preparation  of  the  land  and  the  planting  of  the  roots 
may  be  done  in  much  the  same  way  as  Bermuda  grass 
is  planted  (see  p.  120),  but  the  root  cuttings  of  the 
Texas  blue  grass  should  be  planted  closer  because  of 
the  less  power  which  it  has  to  multiply  rapidly.  Two 
feet  by  one  has  been  mentioned  as  a  suitable  distance, 
for  planting  the  root  cuttings.  Whether  it  will  an- 
swer best  to  sow  it  alone  or  in  mixtures  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  fully  determined.  Some  have 
thought  that  by  growing  it  along  with  Bermuda  grass 
the  two  would  furnish  grazing  all  the  year,  but  ex- 
periments with  that  aim  in  view  have  thus  far  not 
been  markedly  successful. 

Pasturing. — This  grass  would  seem  to  be  especially 
well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  pasture  in  the  South. 
In  these,  it  will  grow  more  rapidly  than  Kentucky 
blue  grass  and  will  produce  much  more  grazing.  It 
has  been  claimed,  that  in  this  respect,  it  is  not  sur- 
passed by  any  other  grass,  in  the  South.  It  grows 
early,  and  although  it  does  not  grow  quickly  in  dry 
summer  weather,  it  comes  on  at  once  after  the  autumn 
rains  begin  to  fall,  and  grows  through  much  or  all  of 
the  winter,  accordng  to  the  locality,  thus  furnishing 
winter  forage  freely.  It  keeps  green  through  nearly 
all  the  year,  even  as  far  north  as  Tennessee.  It  forms 
a  thick  turf  and  stands  grazing  well.  It  is  particularly 


ROUGH  STALKED  MEADOW  GRASS.  301 

well  adapted  for  permanent  pastures  in  its  own  par- 
ticular domain.  , 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — This  grass,  being  a  much 
stronger  grower  than  Kentucky  blue  grass,  furnishes 
more  hay.  It  should  be  cut  like  other  grasses  when 
in  bloom.  It  may  be  harvested  the  same  as  timothy. 

Securing  Seed. — This  grass,  like  the  Kentucky,  seeds 
freely  and  may  be  harvested  with  the  binder. 

Renewing. — Although  information  is  not  plentiful 
with  reference  to  this  question,  it  would  seem  to  be 
quite  practicable  to  renew  this  grass  by  disking  it 
once  or  twice  or  oftener  when  it  becomes  sodbound 
and  applying  fertilizer.  Breaking  up  the  roots  with 
the  plow  as  in  renewing  Bermuda  grass  would  be  too 
severe  treatment  'for  Texas  blue  grass  unless  done  with 
care  and  skill. 

BOUGH   STALKED  MEADOW  GRASS. 

Rough  Stalked  meadow  grass  (Poa  trivialis*)  is  also 
known  by  the  names  Rough  meadow  grass,  Roughish 
meadow  grass,  Green  grass,  Common  meadow  grass 
and  Orchiston  grass.  The  designation  Rough  Stalked 
is  given  to  it  because  of  the  roughness  of  the  stems 
below  the  panicle.  The  name  Orchiston  grass  has 
been  given  to  it  because  of  its  abundance  in  the  grass 
lands  of  Orchiston  near  Salisbury,  England. 

This  grass  is  closely  related  to  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
but  it  is  taller  and  more  slender  and  has  a  rougher 
stem.  The  root  is  also  fibrous,  whereas  that  of  June; 
grass  is  creeping.  It  is  a  perennial  and  grows  to  the 
height  of  1  to  3  feet.  The  stems  are  decumbent  at 


302  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

the  base.  The  leaves  are  numerous,  flat,  and  from 
o  to  0  inejies  long.  The  panicle  is  open  and  resem- 
bles a  narrow  pyramid  in  form.  It  is  quite  open  and 
from  3  to  8  inches  long. 

It  is  best  adapted  to  moist  conditions.  It  grows 
well  amid  the  shade  and  protection  furnished  by  other 
grasses,  produces  a  sweet  and  fairly  nutritious  hay, 
and  is  greatly  relished  both  as  hay  c/r  ss  pasture  by 
horses,  cattle  or  sheep.  In  Britain,  it  is  much  pre- 
ferred to  June  grass,  although  it  is  considerably  later 
in  its  habit  of  growth.  It  multiplies  only  by  means 
of  the  seed,  hence  in  a  few  years  it  dies  out,  even  in 
permanent  pastures. 

Distribution. — This  grass  is  found  in  Europe,  North 
Africa  and  Siberia.  It  has  been  introduced  into  Amer- 
ica. It  is  said  that  it  has  been  longer  cultivated  than 
any  other  poa  and  the  statement  is  probably  true.  It 
is  still  in  high  favor  in  England  and  also  on  the  Con- 
tinent. 

Rough  stalked  meadow  grass  prefers  a  moist  and 
temperate  climate.  It  has  not  been  very  extensively 
grown  in  this  country,  but  where  tried  under  suitable 
conditions  has  proved  itself  to  be  a  useful  grass.  On 
low  lands,  it  should  do  well  from  Lake  Superior  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  little  attention  that  has  been 
given  to  its  introduction  in  the  United  States  is  owing 
in  part  at  least  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  good  seed 
and  to  the  high  price  of  the  same. 

Soils. — Rough  stalked  meadow  grass,  like  redtop,  is 
adapted  to  soils  low  and  moist.  This  does  not  mean  that 
it  will  not  give  returns  on  productive  upland  or  prai- 


ROUGH  STALKED  MEADOW  GRASS.  303 

rie  soils,  but  that  the  best  returns  will  be  obtained  from 
moist  humus  soils  of  the  slough  order  from  which  the 
surface  water  has  been  sufficiently  removed.  It  should 
not  be  sown  on  clayey,  gravelly  or  sandy  knolls. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Rough  stalked  meadow  grass, 
like  redtop,  is  not  adapted  to  short  rotations.  Much 
of  what  has  been  said  of  the  place  for  redtop  in  the 
rotation  will  also  apply  to  this  grass. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  preparation  of  the  soil 
for  rough  stalked  meadow  grass  is  about  the  same  as 
for  redtop.  (See  p.  155.) 

Sowing. — The  best  time  to  sow  rough  stalked  mea- 
dow grass  in  the  North  is  the  early  spring,  and  in  the 
South,  the  early  autumn,  providing  enough  of  moist- 
ure is  in  the  soil.  It  may  be  sown  by  hand  or  with 
the  improved  seed  sower  that  is  wheeled  over  the  ground. 
The  seed  is  not  easily  sown  by  hand,  owing  to  its  woolly 
character.  It  proves  more  satisfactory  when  grown  in 
mixtures.  It  may  be  profitably  sown  with  orchard 
grass,  redtop,  fowl  meadow  grass  and  timothy,  when 
providing  pasture.  In  providing  hay,  orchard  grass 
should  be  omitted  as  it  ripens  considerably  earlier  than 
the  other  grasses  named.  The  most  suitable  of  these 
for  sowing  in  conjunction  with  rough  stalked  meadow 
grass  are  redtop  and  fowl  meadow  grass.  If  sown 
along  with  Kentucky  blue  grass,  the  latter  will  in  time 
crowd  it  out.  The  yields  of  hay  will  be  much  in- 
creased by  sowing  rough  stalked  meadow  grass  along 
with  other  varieties  that  are  grown  under  like  condi- 
tions. This  grass  has  also  been  recommended  for  sow- 
ing in  certain  low  lying  woodland  pastures. 


304  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

The  seed  weighs  14  pounds  to  the  bushel.  When 
sown  alone  one  bushel  ought  to  suffice ;  when  sown  with 
other  grass,  the  amount  of  seed  required  will  be  in- 
fluenced by  the  number  of  the  grasses  sown,  and  by 
the  use  that  is  to  be  made  of  them,  also  by  adaptation 
in  soils.  In  mixtures  it  will  seldom  be  necessary  to 
sow  more  than  7  pounds  per  acre  and  frequently  much 
less  than  this  amount  will  suffice. 

Pasturing. — While  this  grass  stands  pasturing  rea- 
sonably well  for  a  season,  close  grazing  will  injure  it 
in  time,  especially  in  warm  situations.  The  after- 
math is  said  to  be  more  nutritious  than  the  hay. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — The  hay  is  cut  and  harvest- 
ed in  about  the  same  way  as  timothy.  (See  p.  72.)  The 
yields  are  heavy  on  good  soils,  and  it  has  been  said  are 
always  greatest  in  mixtures.  It  has  been  claimed  that 
in  England  it  will  yield  more  than  rye  grass,  but  this 
statement  will  probably  apply  only  to  certain  locali- 
ties. Testimony  is  agreed  as  to  the  high  quality  of 
the  hay. 

Securing  Seed. — As  the  seed  of  rough  talked  mead- 
ow grass  is  very  largely  if  not  entirely  imported, 
American  methods  of  saving  it  cannot  be  given.  It 
would  seem  reasonable,  however,  to  suppose  that  it 
could  be  saved  by  much  the  same  plan  as  Kentucky 
blue  grass. '  (See  p.  101.) 

Renewing. — When  this  grass  fails,  it  will  probably  bo 
found  better  to  re-sow  than  to  try  renewal  by  adding 
seed  from  time  to  time,  but  to  this  there  may  be  some 
exceptions. 


FOWL  MEADOW  GRASS  305 

FOWL  MEADOW  GRASS. 

Fowl  meadow  grass  (Poa  serotina)  belongs  to  the 
same  genus  as  Kentucky  blue  grass.  It  is  also  called 
False  redtop,  Duck  grass  and  Swamp  wire  grass.  Be- 
cause it  sends  forth  flower  stems  from  the  lower  joints 
after  the  main  panicle  has  bloomed  the  term  serotina, 
ever-flowering,  has  been  applied  to  it.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  introduced  into  a  low  meadow  near  Dedham, 
Massachusetts,  by  wild  ducks  and  other  water  fowl,  hence 
the  name  Fowl  Meadow  grass. 

The  stems  of  this  grass  are  somewhat  weak,  hence 
they  are  considerably  given  to  lodge.  They  grow  from 
2  to  3  feet  high.  The  leaves  are  narrow,  smooth  and 
plentiful.  The  head  is  from  6  to  14  inches  long  and 
is  erect  and  spreading,  when  in  bloom  but  more  or  less 
contracted  and  drooping,  when  ripe.  The  roots  are 
slightly  creeping.  Fowl  meadow  grass  is  perennial.  It 
is  nutritious,  makes  excellent  hay  and  also  yields  abun- 
dantly on  suitable  soils.  The  hay  is  highly  palatable  to 
stock,  but  owing  to  its  softness  is  not  considered  quite 
equal  to  timothy  for  horses,  nor  does  it  furnish  quite 
so  marketable  a  hay  as  timothy.  It  is  somewhat  late 
coming  into  flower  and  does  not  grow  much  aftermath. 
Its  highest  use  is  for  being  grown  along  with  certain 
other  grasses  on  low  lands  for  making  hay. 

Distribution. — Fowl  meadow  grass  is  native  to  Eu- 
rope and  also  to  many  parts  of  America.  It  has  been 
grown  under  cultivation  in  New  England  for  more 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years.  Jared  Elliott  wrote 
commendingly  about  it  in  1749,  when  contrasting  its 
merits  with  those  of  timothy.  It  forms  a  considera- 


.  306  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

ble  proportion  of  the  hay  crop  in  New  England,  but 
does  not  appear  to  he  cultivated  to  any  very  great  ex- 
tent in  other  states  although  indigenous  to  several  of 
these.  In  the  southern  states,  it  grows  well  on  suit- 
able soils,  but  has  not  been  very  extensively  tried  on 
these.  On  low  lands  in  the  central  states,  more  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  growing  this  grass  in  mixtures 
than  has  heretofore  been  accorded  to  it.  In  Ontario 
also  and  other  parts  of  Eastern  Canada,  the  grass  grows 
in  good  form.  Its  cultivation  in  Europe  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  greatly  successful. 

Soil. — Soils  well  supplied  with  humus  are  best  adapt- 
ed to  the  growth  of  this  grass.  It  will  even  succeed 
in  slough  lands,  over-moist  for  some  other  grasses.  It 
succeeds  admirably  on  bottom  and  intervale  lands  that 
are  occasionally  overflowed,  and  yet  it  does  not  stand 
submergence  for  any  considerable  period,  especially 
when  the  weather  is  warm.  But  it  will  succeed  in 
sands  too  wet  for  the  ordinary  processes  of  comforta- 
ble tillage.  It  will  also  grow  well  on  uplands  which 
consist  of  moist  wnrm  soil.  It  should  not  be  sown  on 
dry  soils,  on  stiff  nard  clays,  or  on  sandy  or  gravelly 
soils. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — This  grass  is  not  really  a 
rotation  grass,  but  like  redtop  it  may  be  made  such 
under  certaiii  ti^diCOfis.  (See  p.  154.)  Its  highest 
adaptation  is  found  in  meadows  of  some  permanency. 
When  grown  in  bottom  lands  that  are  readily  tillable, 
it  may  come  after  any  crop  to  which  clean  tillage  has 
been  given,  as  corn  or  potatoes,  and-  may  be  followevi 
by  any  crop  or  succession  of  crops  adapted  to  such 


FOWL  MEADOW  GRASS.  307 

lands  and  especially  to  such  as  flourish  best  on  plenti- 
ful supplies  of  humus.  A  hay  meadow  of  this  grass 
will  last  for  many  years,  if  properly  managed. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  preparation  of  the  soil  for 
fowl  meadow  grass  is  much  the  same  as  for  redtop. 
(See  p.  155.)  It  may  also  be  introduced  into  lowlands 
congenial  to  its  growth  by  sowing  the  seed  without 
poughing  the  land,  but  such  introduction  will  of  neces- 
sity not  be  rapid. 

Sowing. — This  grass  may  be  best  sown  in  the  early 
spring  in  the  northern  states  and  Canada,  but  in  the 
southern  states  it  would  doubtless  be  better  sown  in 
the  autumn.  It  may  be  sown  alone,  or  what  is  better 
in  the  mixtures  that  have  adaptation  for  lowlands,  as, 
for  instance,  along  with  timothy  or  redtop  when  sown 
for  hay  and  along  with  one  or  both  of  these  when  sown 
for  pasture  with  blue  grass  added.  Alsike  clover  may 
also  be  added  for  both  uses,  but  alsike  and  fowl  mead- 
ow grass  would  not  go  well  together  for  making  hay, 
except  with  some  stiffer  grass  as  timothy  to  support 
them.  The  seed  is  usually  sown  by  hand  and  covered 
with  a  light  harrow.  It  weighs  12  to  14  pounds  per 
bushel,  but  when  very  well  cleaned  weighs  19  or  20 
pounds.  When  sown  alone  not  less  than  2  bushels  of 
seed  should  be  used.  When  sown  along  with  other 
grasses  the  amount  will  of  course  vary  with  the  kind 
and  proportions  of  the  other  grasses  sown. 

Pasturing. — From  spring  until  the  early  autumn 
fowl  meadow  grass  furnishes  good  grazing,  but  after 
a  hay  crop  the  aftermath  is  not  abundant.  As  a  pas- 


308  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

ture  grass  it  serves  a  better  purpose  in  mixtures  than 
alone. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — In  the  northern  states  fowl 
meadow  grass  blossoms  in  July  and  August.  It  is 
best  cut  when  in  flower.  But  if  not  harvested  at  that 
time,  the  stems  fall  down  and  especially  from  the  lower 
joints  other  flower  stems  are  sent  up.  Because  of  this 
habit  of  growth  the  grass  suffers  little  through  deferred 
cutting.  In  fact  it  has  been  claimed  that  the  highest 
production  in  weight  and  nutrition  is  obtained  for  the 
hay  that  is  cut  late.  It  may  be  cut  any  time  from  July 
to  October  and  is  harvested  in  the  same  way  as  tim- 
othy, but  will  probably  require  more  time  on  an  aver- 
age to  cure  because  of  its  softness.  Jared  Elliott 
claimed  that  it  would  make  better  hay  for  shipping 
than  timothy  but  the  testimony  of  the  intervening  years 
has  demonstrated  that  the  opposite  is  true. 

Securing  Seed. — It  is  not  so  easy  to  secure  the  seed 
of  this  grass  as  of  some  others,  owing  to  the  lodging 
habit  which  characterizes  it.  To  cut  it  with  the  binder 
set  high  would  seem  to  be  one  of  the  best  ways  of  cut- 
ting the  grass  for  seed,  but  the  author  cannot  cite  any 
instance  based  on  actual  experience  in  which  the  work 
has  been  done  in  this  way.  The  part  left  uncut  could 
then  be  pastured  or  even  cut  for  hay.  Much  care  is 
required  in  threshing  and  cleaning  the  seed.  Average 
yields  may  be  set  down  at  6  to  7  bushels  per  acre.  As  ii 
is  not  easy  to  distinguish  the  seed  from  that  of  some 
other  varieties  of  grass,  it  is  much  adulterated.  That  ie 
one  reason  why  it,  and  several  other  more  or  less  useful 
grasses,  are  not  sowtf  to  a  greater  extent  than  they  are. 


RESCUE  GRASS.  309 

Nevertheless,  when  the  cultivation  of  a  grass  popular 
a  century  and  a  half  ago  does  not  extend  greatly,  the 
conclusion  would  seem  to  be  correct,  that  the  grasses 
more  generally  cultivated  stand  higher  in  the  popular 
estimate. 

Renewing. — A  grass  that  produces  seed  during  so 
large  a  portion  of  the  season  has  no  little  power  to 
re-seed  the  soil  on  which  it  grows  if  not  grazed  too 
closely.  When  thus  treated  it  should  endure  for  a 
long  time. 

RESCUE     GKASS. 

Rescue  grass  (Bromus  unoiloides)  is  also  known  by 
the  names  of  Schraeder  grass,  Australian  grass  and 
Arctic  grass.  It  is  closely  allied  to  Chess  or  Cheat 
(Bromus  secalinus).  A  grass  which  grows  vigorously 
even  under  hard  conditions  and  which  produces  good 
hay  and  pasture,  but  which  when  once  introduced  is 
likely  to  appear  in  future  grain  crops  grown  on  the 
same  land.  But  the  hazard  is  not  so  great  that  res- 
cue grass  will  remain  in  the  land  >vhere  it  was  grown. 
This  grass  grows  erectly  and  from  1  to  3  feet  high. 
It  produces  an  abundance  of  leaves.  The  panicles  are 
large,  much  branched,  loose  and  nodding.  They  pre- 
sent a  beautiful  appearance  as  they  sway  to  and  fro  in 
the  wind.  The  plants  tiller  much  under  favorable 
conditions  of  growth.  The  roots  are  fibrous.  The 
whole  plant  bears  considerable  resemblance  to  Bromus 
secalinus,  but  it  is  probably  more  leafy,  and  hence  so 
far  a  better  pasture  grass.  The  seeds  resemble  those 
of  the  former  so  closely  that  they  are  frequently  sold 
under  the  name  of  rescue  grass. 


310  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  TH&M. 

Rescue  grass  is  an  annual,  but  if  eaten  closely  it 
will  live  for  a  longer  period  than  one  year,  in  some 
instances  for  2  or  3  years.  It  is  essentially  a  winter 
grass  and  should  usually  be  sown  for  the  purpose  of 
providing  winter  pasture.  Although  it  does  not  grow 
rapidly  at  first,  it  does  later,  hence,  in  the  far  South, 
it.  may  be  made  to  furnish  grazing  in  January  and 
February,  and  later  may  produce  a  crop  of  hay.  It 
matures  in  March  and  April  in  Texas.  It  furnishes 
good  grazing  and  good  hay,  but  if  allowed  to  go  to 
seed  the  seeds  will  germinate  later  and  appear  in  the 
next  crop. 

Distribution. — Rescue  grass  is  said  to  be  a  native 
of  South  America.  It  has  been  grown  to  some  extent 
in  all  the  states  of  the  South,  but  has  been  grown  to 
a  greater  extent  in  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Alabama 
and  Georgia  than  in  the  other  states.  It  will  endure 
the  xsold  of  winter  in  latitudes  considerably  higher,  but 
there  would  seem  to  be  no  good  reasons  for  growing 
the  plant  where  it  will  not  provide  grazing  in  winter. 

Soil. — This  grass  will  grow  best  of  course  in  rich 
strong  soils,  but  it  will  grow,  though  more  feebly,  in 
poor  and  thin  soils.  If  grown  on  the  latter,  it  should 
be  stimulated  by  liberal  fertilizing. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Rescue  grass  being  essen- 
tially an  annual  and  a  winter  grass  may  come  any- 
where in  the  rotation,  whether  it  be  a  long  or  a  short 
one.  When  winter  grazing  is  much  desh-ed,  it  may 
be  grown  from  year  to  year,  alternating  with  cow  peas. 
The  latter  fertilizes  the  soil  for  the  rescue  grass  and, 
if  ploughed  under,  will  furnish  a  supply  of  humus. 


FIG.  17. 

RESCUE  GRASS  (Bromus  unoiloides}. 
Tennessee  Experiment  Station. 


RESCUE  GRASS.  3U 

Preparing  the  Soil. — As  the  seed  of  rescue  grass 
should  he  sown  in  the  autumn,  the  ground  may  be  pre- 
pared any  time  previously  during  the  summer.  After 
winter  crops,  ploughing  and  subsequently  pulverizing 
will  make  a  timely  and  suitable  seed  bed.  But  if  any 
considerable  amount  of  the  seed  is  allowed  to  drop 
in  the  pastures,  and  if  some  such  crop  as  cow  peas 
is  made  to  follow  the  seed  which  has  fallen,  it  wil] 
germinate  in  the  autumn  and  produce  grazing  or  hay 
and,  in  some  instances,  both  if  desired. 

Sowing. — Rescue  grass  is  best  sown  in  the  autumn. 
Ordinarily  it  is  not  sown  until  the  fall  rains  come,  as 
it  does  not  germinate  earlier,  hence  it  is  commonly 
sown  in  September  or  October.  But  in  some  seasons 
it  starts  earlier.  In  other  seasons  it  will  not  start  un- 
til December  or  January.  Moisture  and  reasonably 
cool  weather  are  two  of  the  essentials  necessary  to  the 
successful  growth  of  rescue  grass. 

It  is  commonly  sown  alone,  but  may  be  sown  along 
with  crimson  clover  and  certain  other  plants.  When 
sown  alone  about  30  pounds  of  seed  will  suffice  per 
acre.  If  sown  with  other  plants  the  amount  of  seed 
should  be  correspondingly  reduced. 

Pasturing. — While  this  crop  furnishes  excellent  win- 
ter grazing,  it  would  not  be  correct  to  claim  that  it  will 
furnish  more  grazing  in  the  aggregate  than  winter  oats, 
but  it  has  been  claimed  that  it  has  greater  power  to 
furnish  grazing  in  cool  weather,  as  for  instance,  in  Jan- 
uary and  February,  when  such  grazing  is  most  needed. 
It  is  then  especially  serviceable  in  providing  food  for 
brood  mares  with  autumn  foals,  milch  cows,  ewes  with 


312  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

young  lambs,  calves  and  brood  sows.  In  some  loose 
soils,  the  stock  grazing  upon  it  will  to  some  extent 
pull  it  out  of  the  soil. 

It  is  possible  to  grow  rescue  grass  for  pasture  for  suc- 
cessive years  on  the  same  land  and  with  undiminished 
yields,  by  simply  allowing  some  of  the  seed  to  drop  in 
the  pasture,  and  then  ploughing  and  enriching  the  land 
in  early  summer  by  applying  manure  or  artificial  fer- 
tilizer, or  by  growing  cow  peas  as  already  intimated. 
This  plan  may  be  commendable  when  winter  grazing 
is  wanted,  located  quite  near  to  the  buildings. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — As  already  intimated,  rescue 
grass  may  be  grazed  in  the  winter  and  then  allowed 
to  grow  hay  or  mature  seed  later.  The  hay  crop  in 
Texas  and  Louisiana  from  this  grass  is  ready  for  be- 
ing harvested  in  March  or  April.  It  is  cut  and  cured 
like  orchard  grass.  (See  page  143.)  The  hay  is  not 
difficult  to  cure.  The  proper  season  for  cutting  is 
that  of  early  bloom.  While  this  grass  makes  good  hay, 
it  is  in  no  way  superior  to  that  made  from  winter 
oats,  and  some  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  average 
yields  are  not  equal  to  those  obtained  from  oats.  Good 
yields  of  hay  may  be  set  down  at  2  tons  per  acre,  but  on 
good  bottom  lands  the  yield  will  be  considerably  larger. 

Securing  Seed. — It  is  not  difficult  to  secure  seed  from 
this  grass.  When  ripe  it  may  be  cut  with  the  binder 
and  threshed  and  cleaned  like  wheat.  The  yield  may 
be  set  down  as  varying  from  20  to  35  bushels  per  acre. 
The  seed  weighs  14  pounds  per  bushel. 

Renewing. — From  what  has  been  'said  above  it  will 
be  apparent  that  the  renewal  of  this  grass  may  be 


SHEEP'S  FESCUE!  313 

brought  about  by  simply  allowing  the  seed  to  drop 
in  the  pastures.  There  is  the  objection  to  this,  how- 
ever, that  the  seed  may  remain  ungerminated  in  the  soil 
and  grow  in  succeeding  crops.  Because  of  this,  some 
writers  advise  against  the  sowing  of  rescue  grass  for 
any  purpose  and  the  advice  should  certainly  be  heeded 
by  the  careless  farmer.  Those  who  cultivate  carefully, 
however,  should  have  but  little  to  fear  from  the  intro- 
duction of  this  grass  upon  their  farms. 

SHEEP'S  FESCUE. 

Sheep's  Fescue  (Festuca  ovina)  is  a  low  growing 
grass  which  has  the  habit  of  bunching  in  dense  tufts. 
The  leaves  are  short,  very  fine,  slender,  and  almost 
bristle-like  in  their  erection,  and  not  infrequently  are 
characterized  by  a  grayish  color,  tinged  with  red.  The 
stems  are  slender,  not  particularly  numerous,  and  grow 
from  6  to  12  inches  high,  but  usually  do  not  attain 
a  height  of  more  than  8  inches.  The  heads  are  short 
and  slender,  somewhat  one-sided,  and  they  spread  more 
or  less  when  in  flower.  The  roots  are  fibrous.  The 
extent  to  which  sheep  have  been  grazed  on  it  has  doubt- 
less given  to  it  the  name  Sheep's  Fescue. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  this  plant  which  bear 
no  little  resemblance  to  one  another.  One  of  the  best 
of  these  is  Hard  Fescue  (Festuca  durinscula).  The 
latter  is  taller  than  Sheep's  Fescue,  less  densely  tufted 
and  equally  if  not  even  more  hardy. 

Sheep's  Fescue  is  a  perennial.  It  has  much  per- 
manency, more  particularly  in  lands  where  the  growth 
is  not  overshadowed  by  larger  plants.  It  is  very  hardy. 


314  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Though  too  small  to  grow  as  hay,  it  has  been  found 
quite  useful  under  some  conditions  in  providing  pas- 
ture for  sheep  and  cattle,  hoth  of  which  are  very  fond 
of  it.  It  is  also  highly  nutritious.  In  America,  it 
has  not  been  much  introduced  into  cultivation;  but  it 
may  be  advisable  to  sow  it  under  some  conditions. 

Distribution. — This  grass  is  probably  native  to  Eu- 
rope, Asia  and  North  America.  It  has  rendered  much 
service  in  providing  grazing  on  the  arid  plains  of  Asia. 
It  will  grow  in  many  sections  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  and,  where  the  conditions  are  hard,  may  fre- 
quently be  made  to  render  considerable  service  in  fur- 
nishing pasture.  It  has  special  adaptation  to  Rocky 
mountain  areas.  Being  extremely  hardy,  it  is  on  the 
whole  better  adapted  to  northern  than  to  southern 
Conditions.  Its  chief  value  lies  in  furnishing  pas- 
ture on  dry  soils  where  better  grasses  refuse  to  grow. 
It  has  much  power  to  grow  on  dry,  sandy  or  gravelly 
soils,  on  clay  hills  and  on  rocky  mountain  slopes  with 
but  a  thin  covering  of  earth. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Sheep's  Fescue  is  not  a  ro- 
tation crop,  since  it  is  not  commonly  sown  on  prepared 
land;  but  of  course  it  may  be  grown  in  rotations  in 
pastures  of  more  or  less  permanency. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — This  grass  is  indigenous  to 
many  sections.  In  these  the  question  of  soil  prepara- 
tion and  of  sowing  is  not  greatly  important.  In  such 
areas,  the  grass  usually  grows,  as  it  were,  spontane- 
ously, and  if  not  kept  grazed  too  closely  will  scatter 
the  seeds  so  as  to  thicken  the  grazing.  Scattering  seed 
on  unbroken  land,  which  is  not  covered  with  a  close 


til 

FIG.  18. 
SHEEP'S  FESCUE   (Festuca  ovina). 

Teaaossae  Experiment  Station. 


SHEEP'S  FESCUE.  317 

grass  turf,  will  usually  result  in  establishing  the  grass 
in  the  same. 

Sowing. — The  seed  may  be  sown  in  the  spring  or 
in  the  autumn.  When  sown  on  unbroken  lands,  it  is 
usually  sown  alone.  But  it  is  also  sown  sometimes 
with  mixtures  intended  for  permanent  pastures,  and 
in  making  lawns..  If  sown  alone  to  make  a  lawn, 
seed  would  be  required  at  the  rate  of  2  bushels  per 
acre.  To  form  a  dense  pasture  quickly  of  Sheep's 
Fescue  alone,  would  call  for  about  the  same  amount 
of  seed.  When  sown  in  permanent  mixtures,  it  is 
not  usual  to  sow  large  quantities  of  seed,  usually  not 
more  than  3  or  4  pounds  per  acre;  but  there  may  be 
instances  in  which  it  would  be  advisable  to  sow.  much 
larger  quantities  of  seed. 

Pasturing. — This  grass  well  withstands  close  and 
prolonged  pasturing.  It  has  much  power  to  retain 
its  hold  upon  the  soil,  and  when  grown  amid  other 
pasture  grasses  helps  to  form  a  dense  turf.  In  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  this  grass  has  helped  to  furnish 
grazing  for  sheep  for  centuries. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Sheep's  Fescue  is  seldom  or 
never  harvested  for  hay  under  American  conditions. 
The  yields  in  the  form  of  hay  are  usually  so  much 
less  than  those  of  some  other  hay  grass  grown  in  the 
locality,  that  hay  is  seldom  sought  from  the  latter. 
But  of  course  it  can  be  cut  for  hay.  When  so  cut  ic 
must  be  handled  with  many  tined  forks,  because  of  the 
.shortness  and  fineness  of  the  product. 

Securing  Seed. — The  supply  of.  seed  is  all  or  nearly 
All  imported.  The  grass  seeds  freely  in  proportion  to 
Grasses — 21. 


318  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

the  number  of  the  seed  heads.  And  seed  could  of  course 
be  grown  under  American  conditions,  but  whether  its 
growth  would  be  highly  profitable  at  the  present  time 
is  questionable,  owing  to  the  limited  demand  for  the 
seed.  In  the  latitude  of  New  England,  the  seed  ma- 
tures in  July.  There  is  probably  no  way  of  harvest- 
ing it,  that  will  prove  so  satisfactory  as  gathering  the 
seed  with  the  stripper.  It  weighs  12  to  14  pounds 
per  bushel.  The  yields  are  not  very  large  as  the  seed 
heads  are  not  very  numerous  relatively. 

Renewing. — To  renew  this  grass  means  the  appli- 
cation of  more  seed.  This  may  be  done  in  pastures 
by  simply  allowing  some  of  the  seed  to  ripen  and  be- 
come strewn  with  the  wind,  or  by  adding  some  more 
seed  at  the  proper  season  or  seasons.  In  the  absence 
of  positive  experience,  it  will  probably  be  found  that 
sowing  soon  after  the  seed  matures  in  the  summer  or 
in  the  quite  early  spring,  will  secure  the  end  sought. 

For  Lawns. — Sheep's  Fescue  has  been  much  used 
for  lawns  under  certain  conditions.  When  thickly  set 
it  makes  an  attractive  lawn,  and  has  the  merit  of  grow- 
ing slowly,  thus  lessening  the  number  of  the  cuttings 
required,  but  a  lawn  made  of  this  grass  is  not  darkly 
green  as  other  grass  lawns.  This,  however,  has  the 
charm  of  novelty  in  addition  to  the  dense  character  of 
the  sward. 

CARPET  GEASS. 

Carpet  grass  (Paspalum  platycaule)  'is  sometimes 
called  Louisiana  grass.  It  is  so  named  doubtless  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  native  to  Louisiana,  and  has  been 
grown  there  with  considerable  success.  The  specific 


CARPET  GRASS.  319 

name  means  flat  stem,  so  given  because  of  the  flatness 
of  the  stems  and  leaves.  It  is  also  called  Blanket  grass, 
for  the  reason  probably  that  it  forms  a  close  dense 
covering  which  spreads  over  the  earth  like  a  blanket. 
The  softness  and  denseness  of  the  covering  is  like  that 
furnished  by  a  carpet,  hence  the  name  commonly  ap- 
plied to  it. 

This  grass  is  extensively  creeping  in  its  habit  of 
growth.  It  is  a  perennial.  The  stems  near  the  ground 
are  broad  and  thin.  The  leaves  are  not  only  broad, 
but  short  and  bluntlike.  The  stems  lie  almost  on  the 
ground  and  frequently  root  at  the  nodes.  From  these 
they  send  up  many  leafy  or  flower  bearing  branches 
from  5  to  25  inches  high,  but  more  commonly  not 
more  than  12  inches.  These  are  naked  and  at  the  apex 
nearly  always  divide  into  2  or  3  small  spikes  or  flower 
bearing  branches  from  1  to  2  inches  long.  The  creep- 
ing stems  spread  rapidly  and  soon  form  a  dense  sod, 
which  crowds  out  other  plants.  It  is  evergreen  at  the 
far  South.  It  can  well  withstand  protracted  drought. 
It  forms  a  very  dense  sod  and  has  been  found  helpful 
in  binding  soils  that  wash. 

It  is  much  relished  by  live  stock  and  makes  good 
hay,  but,  owing  to  its  strongly  creeping  habit  of  growth 
has  to  be  cut  low.  It  is  not  so  nutritious  as  Bermuda 
grass. 

Distribution. — Carpet  grass  is  now  grown  more  or 
less  in  all  the  southern  states,  but  it  grows  at  its  best 
in  those  which  border  on  the  Gulf.  It  will  also  grow 
in  the  southwestern  states  in  the  presence  of  enough 
of  rainfall.  It  will  also  grow  as  far  north  as  the  north- 


320  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

ern  boundary  of  Tennessee,  but  will  succumb  to  severe 
winters  in  portions  of  the  state.  There  is  no  useful 
place  for  it  further  north  than  the  state  ramed. 

Soils. — This  grass  will  grow  in  almost  any  kind  of 
soil,  but,  like  every  other  variety,  it  grows  best  in  good 
soils.  However,  its  ability  to  grow  in  soils  so  light 
that  they  wash  and  to  bind  them  speaks  well  for  its 
growing  powers. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Since  carpet  grass  is  per- 
ennial in  its  habit  of  growth,  it  is  not  really  a  rotation 
plant  when  grown  for  permanent  pasture,  but  of  course 
it  may  be  made  such  by  breaking  up  the  sod.  Since, 
however,  it  takes  some  time  to  form  a  sod,  it  is  not 
considered  good  practice  to  make  the  rotations  short. 
It  is  adapted  to  the  same  rotation  as  Bermuda  grass. 
(See  p.  118.)  But,  unlike  Bermuda  grass,  it  is  easily 
removed  from  the  soil.  Since  it  is  easily  injured  by 
the  shade  of  stronger  plants,  it  can  be  best  started  in 
clean  soil.  It  is  not  adapted  to  woodlands. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — Much  that  has  been  said  about 
preparing  the  soil  for  Bermuda  grass  will  also  apply 
to  carpet  grass.  (See  p.  119.)  But  on  many  of  the 
soils  of  the  South  it  is  able  to  establish  itself  without 
covering. 

Sowing  or  Planting. — This  grass  is  propagated  by 
means  of  the  seed  and  also  by  means  of  root  cuttings, 
much  of  what  has  been  said  about  the  propagation  of 
Bermuda  grass  will  also  apply  to  carpet  grass.  (See 
p.  120.)  When  the  seed  is  good,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  sow  it  thickly  because  of  the  ability  of  the  grass  to 
spread  and  thicken  in  the  soil.  But  it  would  be  easily 


CARPET  GRASS.  321 

possible  to  carry  the  idea  of  thin  seeding  too  far.  It 
should  not  be  planted  in  conjunction  with  Bermuda 
grass,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  crowd  out  the  former, 
which  is  the  more  valuable. 

Pasturing. — Although  carpet  grass  furnishes  good 
grazing  it  ought  to  be  grazed  rather  closely,  in  order 
to  get  the  most  that  can  be  gained  from  it.  This  is 
necessary  because  of  the  creeping  habit  of  the  growth. 
It  grows  earlier  in  the  season  than  Bermuda  and  also 
later,  consequently  it  is  better  adapted  for  winter 
grazing. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — For  the  same  reason  that  it 
is  necessary  to  graze  carpet  grass  closely,  it  is  also 
necessary  to  mow  closely  for  hay.  The  hay  is  not 
equal  to  that  obtained  from  Bermuda  grass  as  it  is 
more  composed  of  stems.  Though  not  a  handsome  lawn 
grass,  it  is  sometimes  grown  in  lawns.  But,  when 
closely  shorn  in  these,  it  forms  a  very  perfect-like  sod 
which  is  attractive. 

Securing  Seed. — This  grass  seeds  freely.  In  this  one 
explanation  is  found  of  the  frequency  with  which  it 
comes  amid  other  crops  and  in  by-places.  The  seed  is 
not  yet  handled  by  seed  houses.  It  is  doubtless  correct 
to  say,  that  when  sown,  only  a  few  pounds  of  seed  are 
required  per  acre. 

Renewing. — If  some  seeds  are  allowed  to  mature 
and  fall  to  the  ground,  it  is  not  difficult  to  cause  the 
grass  to  thicken  where  the  plants  are  few  and  strag- 
gling. The  habit  of  rooting  at  the  joints  also  facili- 
tates renewal,  where,  from  the  overshadowing  of  large 
plants,  growth  had  been  injured. 


322  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

VELVET  GRASS. 

Velvet  grass  (Holcus  lanatus)  is  also  known  by  the 
names,  Meadow  Soft  grass,  White  Timothy,  Salem 
grass,  Velvet  Lawn  grass,  Velvet  Mesquit  grass,  Soft 
grass,  Yorkshire  grass  and  Yorkshire  Fog.  The  three 
names  mentioned  last  have  been  applied  to  it  in  Eng- 
land. It  is  also  known  by  various  names  on  the  Con- 
tinent. The  name  Velvet  grass  has  doubtless  been  given 
to  it  because  of  the  resemblance  which  it  bears  to  the 
softest  velvet,  in  appearance  and  touch. 

This  grass  grows  from  1  to  2  feet  high,  but  in  some 
parts  of  the  South  where  it  has  improved  by  acclima- 
tion, it  grows  from  2  to  4  feet  high.  The  stems  are 
round  and  grow  erectly.  The  leaves  are  plentiful. 
The  panicle  is  2  to  several  inches  long  and  is  vari- 
ously tinted,  but  more  commonly  the  tint  is  a  whitish 
green,  pinkish  or  purple.  The  roots  are  fibrous.  This 
beautiful  grass  is  so  striking  in  its  appearance  and 
is  so  different  from  other  grasses,  that  it  is  sure  to  be 
noticed  and  admired  wherever  seen. 

Velvet  grass  is  perennial  in  the  North,  but  not  strict- 
ly so  in  the  South.  Notwithstanding  its  beauty,  it 
ranks  low  in  economical  value.  It  grows  so  readily 
on  some  soils  when  introduced  as  to  almost  assume  the 
character  of  a  weed.  Live  stock  are  not  fond  of  it 
either  as  pasture  or  as  hay,  since  it  is  spongy,  insipid 
and  deficient  in  saline  properties.  But  its  nutritive 
value  is  said  to  exceed  that  of  timothy  or  orchard  grass. 
Yet  since  it  will  grow  on  soils  too  poor  to  grow  many 
other  grasses,  it  has  a  useful  mission  in  some  sections 
of  the  country.  It  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  Creep- 


I. 'iff* 


FIG.  19. 
VELVET  GRASS  (Holcus  lanatus). 

Oregon  Experiment  Station. 


VELVET  GRASS.  323 

ing  Soft  grass  (IIolcus  mollis),  which  is  regarded  as 
a  troublesome  weed.  The  latter  has  a  creeping  root 
and  an  open  and  spreading  panicle. 

Distribution. — Velvet  grass  is  native  to  Europe.  In 
the  moist  climate  of  Great  Britain,  it  grows  so  vigor- 
ously as  almost  to  assume  the  character  of  a  weed.  It. 
was  introduced  many  years  ago  into  several  of  the 
states,  more  especially  those  south  and  west.  It  is  a 
fairly  hardy  grass  but  is  best  adapted  to  climates  moist 
and  free  from  great  extremes,  especially  of  cold  and 
drought. 

In  this  country  it  has  been  grown  much  more  in  the 
southern  and  western  states  than  in  those  northward. 
In  these  it  has  not  only  been  tolerated,  but  its  growth 
lias  been  encouraged  in  instances  not  a  few.  It  will 
grow  well  in  New  England  also,  and  in  all  or  nearly 
all  the  states  where  the  rainfall  is  normal.  But  the 
attempt  should  not  be  made  to  grow  it,  where  other 
grasses  can  be  grown  successfully,  that  are  relished 
by  live  stock,  and  that  are  at  the  same  time  sufficiently 
productive.  In  limited  areas  in  nearly  all  the  south- 
ern states,  it  has  been  cultivated  to  some  extent,  and 
in  some  instances  with  advantage.  In  eastern  Oregon, 
along  the  coast  of  which,  it  has  been  cultivated,  it  has 
become  so  aggressive  in  meadows  as  to  be  troublesome. 
In  the  dry  areas  of  the  semi-arid  country,  it  is  not 
likely  to  prove  helpful.  It  will  grow  in  Canada,  in 
Ontario  and  eastward,  'also  along  the  Pacific,  but  is 
not  needed  in  these  areas,  where  better  yields  can  be 
obtained  from  grasses  that  are  superior. 

Velvet  grass  will  grow  in  almost  any  kind  of  land, 


324  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

however  poor,  but  it  grows  best  on  moist  peaty  land. 
It  will  grow  on  light  thin  lands,  on  dry  sandy  and 
gravelly  soils,  or  on  retentive  clay  hills,  when  insuffi- 
cient moisture  is  present.  When  properly  sown  on  these, 
it  will  not  only  produce  crops,  but  when  ploughed  un- 
der, it  prepares  the  land  for  growing  other  and  better 
crops. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — From  what  has  been  said, 
it  will  be  evident  that  velvet  grass  is  not  properly 
speaking  a  rotation  grass.  When  grown  it  should 
rather  be  to  produce  pasture  or  hay  on  poor  soils. 
When  ploughed  up,  however,  it  should  of  course  be 
followed  by  such  crops  as  experience  has  shown  can 
be  grown  with  profit  under  the  conditions. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — It  is  not  necessary  to  take  so 
much  pains  in  preparing  the  land  for  this  crop  as  for 
many  grasses  that  are  grown,  but,  when  sown,  the  aim 
should  be  to  so  prepare  the  land  when  practicable, 
that  a  good  stand  would  likely  be  secured.  Under 
some  conditions,  however,  velvet  grass  will  ultimately 
possess  land  if  the  seed  is  simply  scattered  over  the 
same  in  the  late  summer  or  early  autumn. 

Sowing. — The  time  for  sowing  velvet  grass  varies 
with  the  locality.  In  the  North,  all  things  considered 
the  early  spring  would  be  the  best  season,  but,  doubt- 
less, sowing  late  would  sometimes  answer.  In  the 
South  the  seed  may  be  sowed  also  in  the  early  spring, 
but  it  is  better  to  sow  it  in  the  autumn  from  August 
onward,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  weather.  In 
the  extreme  South,  when  sown  in  August,  the  crop 
may  be  cut  for  soiling  food  in  January  and  February, 


VELVET  GRASS  325 

and  later  if  desired  for  seed.  It -is  usually  sown  alone, 
as  Avlrcn  sown  with  better  grasses  it  is  likely  to  crowd 
them,  and  it  is  also  less  relished  by  the  stock  as  pasture 
or  hay.  The  seed  being  very  light  is  sown  by  hand 
and  because  of  its  lightness  must  be  sown  with  care. 
It  may  also  be  propagated  by  dividing  the  roots  and 
planting  them,  but  this  process  is  unnecessarily  slow 
and  tedious.  In  the  South  it  may  be  successfully  sown 
under  some  conditions  at  the  last  cultivation  given  to 
corn,  the  sorghums  or  root  crops.  From  10  to  14 
pounds  of  seed  are  usually  sown  per  acre. 

Pasturing. — While  this  grass  is  not  considered  a 
good  pasture  grass,  because  of  its  low  palatability,  there 
are  localities  in  which  it  will  not  only  be  eaten  by  live 
stock,  but  in  which  its  presence  is  much  preferable  to 
no  grass.  In  the  presence  of  better  grasses  the  stock 
will  pass  it  by  ungrazed.  This  allows  the  seed  to 
ripen  and  scatter  before  the  winds  which  it  does  read- 
ily because  of  its  lightness.  It  is  thus  increased  in 
pastures.  Under  these  conditions,  the  aim  is  to  get 
rid  of  it  rather  than  to  allow  it  to  increase. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — Like  nearly  all  kinds  of  grass, 
velvet  grass  should  be  cut  at  the  blossoming  stage. 
Under  average  conditions  it  comes  into  flower  in  June, 
but  in  some  locations  in  May.  Its  presence  in  good  hay 
is  not  desirable,  for  the  same  reason  that  it  is  not  de- 
sirable in  pastures,  but  under  some  conditions  it  can 
be  grown  where  hay  cannot  be  made  from  grasses  of 
superior  quality.  In  these  it  is  much  better  than  no 
hay.  Fertilizing  mixed  pastures  or  meadows  in  which 
this  grass  is  growing,  tends  to  increase  its  growth,  the 


326  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

opposite  of  what  usually  follows  such  applications  on 
inferior  grasses  where  these  may  happen  to  be  growing. 

Securing  Seed. — Velvet  grass  seeds  freely  and  is 
therefore  quite  productive  of  .seed.  Several  bushels 
are  obtained  from  an  acre.  The  seed  is  light,  weigh- 
ing not  more  than  6  to  7  pounds  per  bushel,  under  the 
methods  of  cleaning  that  have  prevailed.  The  demand 
for  the  seed  is  not  brisk,  consequently  not  much  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  production  of  the  same.  The  crop 
may  be  harvested  much  in  the  same  way  as  meadow 
fescue.  (See  p.  204.) 

Renewing. — Velvet  grass  will  renew  itself,  if  some 
of  the  plants  are  allowed  to  go  to  seed  in  the  pastures. 
This  would  mean  of  course,  that  grazing  should  not  be 
close  when  such  a  result  is  desired.  Velvet  grass  pas- 
tures may  be  thus  maintained  for  many^  years. 

AUSTRALIAN  SALTBUSH. 

The  Saltbush  is  essentially  a  product  of  the  semi- 
arid  country,  although  it  will  grow  even  more  readily 
under  favorable  Conditions.  It  is  of  several  species. 
The  variety  which  seems  to  meet  with  most  favor  in 
this  country  is  that  known  as  the  Australian  (Atriplex 
Semmibaccata).  It  is  so  named,  doubtless,  from  the 
fact  that  it  was  introduced  from  Australia. 

In  its  essentia'l  characteristics  and  habits  of  growth 
it  is  more  like  a  bush  or  shrub  than  like  a  grass.  The 
plants  are  spreading  and  drooping  rather  than  erect. 
Stems  rise  up  numerously  from  the  crown  of  the  plants. 
They  are  slender  and  covered  with  many  branchlets, 
and  these  in  turn  are  thickly  covered  with  long  rather 


AUSTRALIAN  SALTBUSH.  327 

than  broad  leaves.  After  growing  upward  for  a  short 
distance,  the  branches  reach  outward  and  many  of 
them  droop.  In  this  way  branches  from  a  single  bush 
have  been  known  to  extend  a  distance  of  8  feet  in  every 
direction  from  the  crown  of  the  plant,  but  usually  they 
are  much  less  in  size,  especially  when  they  are  crowded. 
The  stems  become  quite  woody  for  some  distance  from 
the  base  as  the  plants  grow  older,  hence  the  outer  por- 
tions are  much  more  suitable  for  food.  The  roots  go 
down  deeply  into  the  soil  and  subsoil.  In  hard  pan 
soils  they  are  not  much  branched,  but  under  conditions 
the  opposite  the  branches  are  numerous  and  spread 
out  in  every  direction. 

Australian  Saltbush  is  perennial.  It  furnishes  pas- 
ture and  also  hay  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  goats, 
where  other  plants  that  furnish  these  in  more  desirable 
forms  will  not  grow.  The  best  service  which  it  thus  ren- 
ders is  m  soils  so  impregnated  with  alkali  that  they 
will  sustain  but  few  forms  of  vegetable  life. 

Distribution . — Plants  of  the  Saltbush  species  are 
native  to  both  the  old  and  new  worlds.  The  Austra- 
lian Saltbush  is  doubtless  native  to  Australia  and  was 
introduced  into  California  in  1888. 

It  is  adapted  to  warm  climates.  How  far  north 
it  may  be  grown  has  not  been  determined,  but  unless 
beside  the  Pacific,  it  is  questionable  if  it  will  endure 
the  winters  further  north  than  Spokane  in  Washing- 
ton. It  will  of  course  thrive  much  better  under  favor- 
able conditions  as  to  moisture  than  under  thbse  the 
opposite.  'Nevertheless,  its  growth  has  been  satisfac- 
tory where  the  rainfall  has  not  exceeded  5  inches. 


328  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

This  plant  may  be  expected  to  render  the  best  of 
service  in  the  warmer  and  drier  portions  of  the  semi- 
arid  belt,  including  the  states  of  California,  Nevada, 
Utah,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 
It  may  be  said  with  safety  that  it  has  no  mission  for 
Canada  nor  is  it  likely  to  be  grown  in  any  part  of 
the»  United  States  where  range  grasses  will  grow  rea- 
sonably well. 

Soils. — Australian  Saltbush  will  grow  best  on  good 
soils,  but  it  will  also  grow  on  soils  that  are  shallow  and 
underlaid  with  hardpan,  when  it  has  once  been  estab- 
lished. It  is  likely  to  take  its  place  side  by  side  with 
the  sage  bushes  that  grow  on  the  sandy  stretches  of 
the  semi-arid  west,  and  to  reclaim  to  productiveness 
wide  stretches  which  the  alkali  present  in  the  soil  has 
heretofore  kept  destitute  of  vegetation.  It  must  not 
be  understood,  however,  that  this  plant  will  grow  in 
all  alkali  soils.  • 

Place  in  the  Eolation. — Australian  Saltbush  is  of 
course  not  a  rotation  plant.  When  once  established 
the  aim  is  to  keep  it  growing.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  where  it  has  been  grown  for  some  time  on 
alkali  soils,  it  will  so  improve  them  that  they  will  thence- 
forth sustain  one  or  more  of  the  grasses  proper. 

Preparing  Ihe  Soil. — The  best  methods  of  growing 
Australian  Saltbush  under  American  conditions  have 
not  been  fully  worked  out.  Since,  however,  moisture 
is  necessary  to  induce  germination,  and  since  precipi- 
tation is  light,  where  this  plant  grows  the  plan  which 
works  the  ground  on  the  surface  during  the  summer, 
something  after  the  manner  of  caring  for  a  bare  fallow 


AUSTRALIAN  SALTBUSH.  329 

to  prepare  it  for  autumn  seeding,  would  probably  be 
the  best. 

Sowing. — Some  authorities  have  recommended  ger- 
minating the  plants  in  the  greenhouse  and  then  plant- 
ing them  out.  But  this  plan  will  not  answer  for  large 
areas,  owing  to  the  cost.  The  seed  should  be  scattered 
on  land  prepared  as  described,  in  the  autumn,  at  which 
season  some  precipitation  may  be  looked  for,  and  to 
cover  it  with  the  harrow.  But,  on  some  alkali  soils, 
better  results  will  be  obtained  from  sowing  the  seed 
on  certain  alkali  lands  on  undisturbed  surfaces,  and 
pressing  the  same  into  the  surface  soil  by  running 
over  it  a  heavy  roller.  Under  yet  other  conditions, 
as  when  the  plants  are  liable  to  be  disturbed  by  weeds, 
it  has  been  recommended  to  sow  the  plants  in  rows 
several  feet  apart  and  to  give  them  some  cultivation 
for  a  time.  It  is  not  usually  necessary  to  seed  heavily, 
since,  when  the  plants  have  once  become  established, 
they  will  scatter  seeds  and  will  thus  form  additional 
plants  if  allowed  to  do  so. 

Pasturing. — Grazing  with  horses,  cattle,  sheep  or 
goats  may  take  place  at  any  season  that  the  animals 
will  eat  the  plants.  There  is  no  dispute  as  to  the 
plants  being  nutritious  since  they  are  relatively  rich 
in  protein,  but  much  difference  of  opinion  is  expressed 
as  to  the  palatability  in  the  same.  It  is  pretty  cer- 
tain that  domestic  animals,  unless  it  be  goats,  will 
prefer  grass  when  they  can  get  it,  but  that  in  the  ab- 
sence of  grass  they  will  feed  upon  the  Saltbush  pastures 
with  readiness.  The  best  service  probably  which  these 
plants  will  render  is  in  producing  winter  grazing. 


330  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Harvesting  for  Hay. — In  a  dry  climate  there  should 
be  no  real  difficulty  in  making  Australian  Saltbush 
into  hay  in  much  the  same  way  as  other  hay  is  har- 
vested. It  makes  a  coarse  woody  hay,  but  in  situations 
where  better  hay  cannot  be  obtained,  it  is  vastly  better 
than  none,  since  range  animals  will  feed  upon  it  with 
more  or  less  of  relish  in  the  winter  season.  However, 
it  is  better  adapted  relatively  to  furnish  winter  graz- 
ing in  mild  climates  than  to  furnish  winter  hay. 

Securing  Seed. — But  little  is  known  as  to  the  best 
methods  of  securing  the  seed  of  this  plant  under  Amer- 
ican conditions.  This  phase  of  its  cultivation  has  not 
been  well  worked  out.  Fortunately  it  seeds  freely. 
The  plan  of  cutting  it  with  a  self -rake  reaper  and 
threshing  with  a  separator  would  seem  to  be  quite 
feasible.  The  author  has  not  been  able  to  get  any 
information  as  to  the  yields  of  the  seed  or  to  the  mode 
of  preparing  the  same  for  market. 

Renewing. — Australian  Saltbush  has  not  been  grown 
long  enough  in  this  country  to  admit  of  gleaning  much 
information  on  this  question.  But  the  fact  that  it  is 
able  to  increase  by  self-sowing  is  significant.  This 
should  make  it  possible  to  control  the  renewal  of  pas- 
tures by  simply  allowing  the  plants  occasionally  to  pro- 
duce more  or  less  seed. 

PROMISING    GRASSES    NOT    YET    TESTED. 

When  the  ranges  of  the  west  and  northwest  came  to 
be  opened  up,  the  expectation  was  cherished, -that  among 
the  many  grasses  growing  on  them,  some  would  be 
found  that  would  so  respond  to  cultivation,  as  to  prove 
more  valuable  for  some  conditions,  than  many  of  the 


BLUB  JOINT  GRASS.  331 

older  cultivated  grasses.  This  expectation  has  been  real- 
ized only  in  a  slight  degree.  The  only  range  grasses 
that  are  coming  into  general  cultivation  to  any  con- 
siderable extent  at  the  present  time  are  western  rye 
grass  (Agropyrum  tenerum),  in  the  North  and  Texas 
blue  grass  in  the  South.  Notwithstanding  the  value 
of  these  grasses,  they  cannot  be  placed  in  the  very  front 
rank. 

Among  those  not  yet  tested  under  cultivation,  or  only 
partially  tested,  are  but  two  varieties,  which  are  pos- 
sessed of  any  considerable  promise  when  cultivated. 
These  are  Blue  Joint  (Calamagrostis  canadensis)  and 
Blue  Grama  (Bouteloua  oligostachya).  It  is  of  course 
possible  that  other  range  grasses  may"  yet  be  brought 
to  the  front,  but  the  hope  of  this  does  not  seem  bright 
at  the  present  time. 

Blue  Joint  (Calamagrostis  canadensis). — This  grass 
is  perennial.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  3  to  6  feet  and 
is  surmounted  by  a  panicle,  rather  narrow  and  purplish 
in  color.  It  bears  considerable  resemblance  to  that 
of  redtop,  but  it  grows  much  higher  and  larger.  The 
leaves  are  large  and  very  abundant.  The  roots  are 
creeping  and  the  root  system  is  very  heavy. 

Unlike  other  grasses,  known  as  blue  joint,  on  the 
range  it  grows  only  in  moist  situations  and  produces 
much  more  abundantly  than  these. 

Blue  Joint  grows  with  great  rapidity  in  May  and 
June,  and  is  a  great  yielder,  giving  generally  from  2  to 
4  tons  per  acre  of  excellent  hay,  that  is  much  relished  bv 
live  stock. 

It  is  distributed  over  nearly  all  the  northern  states, 
Grasses— 22. 


332  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

but,  uncultivated,  its  growth  is  confined  to  marshy 
ground  and  to  lands  situated  along  creeks  and  rivers, 
that  are  sluggish  in  their  flow.  It  is  found  in  the 
Mississippi  basin  as  far  south  as  northern  Missouri, 
but  is  most  abundant  in  the  marshes  of  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, Minnesota  and  Manitoba  in  Canada. 

Blue  Joint  prefers  marshy  lands,  too  wet  for  redtop 
and  too  dry  for  wire  grass.  It  thrives  best  on  de- 
composed or  partly  decomposed  peat,  but  has  also  re- 
sponded encouragingly  when  tested  at  the  experiment 
station  at  Ames,  Iowa. 

In  a  natural  state,  its  place  in  the  rotation  has  been 
given.  Under  cultivation,  it  would  probably  answer 
best  as  permanent  meadow;  nor  can  anything  be  said, 
at  present,  based  on  experience  as  to  the  best  methods 
of  preparing  the  land  and  sowing  the  seed. 

The  plants  seed  with  considerable  freedom  and  ma- 
ture their  seeds  in  July.  It  should  be  cut  for  hay 
not  later  than  the  early  flowering  stage,  or  it  will  lose 
much  in  the  palatability,  but  in  this  respect  it  does  not 
lose  to  the  extent  of  many  other  grasses.  The  hay  is 
eaten  with  much  relish  by  all  classes  of  farm  stock 
and  is  said  to  be  of  average  nutrition.  While  in  a 
state  of  nature,  though  eaten  readily  by  stock  at  the 
proper  season  for  grazing,  which  is  late  in  May  or 
early  in  June,  the  ground  is  usually  too  soft  for  such 
grazing.  It  is  probable  that  the  seed  could  be  best 
secured  by  setting  the  binder  as  high  as  possible  and 
binding  into  sheaves. 

This  grass  should  certainly  be  carefully  tested  in 
an  experimental  way  on  low  lands,  to  which  cultiva- 


BLUE  GRAMA.  333 

cion  may  be  given  and  which  are  underlaid  with  peat. 
It  is  possible,  that  under  conditions  more  dry  than 
those  where  it  now  grows  at  its  best,  it  would  not  en- 
dure long.  Notwithstanding  it  is  certainly  worthy 
of  further  investigation. 

Blue  Grama  (Bouieloua  oligosiacliya). — This  grass 
belongs  to  a  somewhat  numerous  family,  which  have 
special  adaptation  for  warm,  dry  range^conditions.  It 
has  also  been  called  Mesquit  of  Mezquite.  It  is  the 
most  promising  of  all  the  grama  grasses,  although  the 
variety  Tall  Grama  (Bouteloua  racemosa)  has  been 
well  spoken  of.  Blue  grama  grows  to  the  height  of 
6  to  18  inches,  but  seldom  exceeds  the  height  of  12 
inches,  under  range  conditions;  under  cultivation  it 
grows  higher.  The  leaves  are  numerous,  narrow  and 
firm.  The  spike  is  1  to  5  inches  long.  It  has  strong 
rhizomes  and  forms  a  dense  turf. 

It  is  a  hardy  grass  and  specially  drought  resistant. 
It  is  much  relished  by  live  stock  as  pasture  or  as  hay. 
It  seeds  freely  and  has  the  property  of  growing  when 
rain  falls  and  then  seeding  and  curing  as  the  weather 
becomes  dry. 

This  grass  extends  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Pacific 
and  from  British  Columbia  to  Mexico.  In  Montana 
it  is  called  Buffalo  grass  and  frequents  the  bench  lands 
at  elevations  from  3000  to  5000  feet  above  sea-level. 
It  grows  at  its  best  between  latitudes  36  deg.  and  42 
deg.  north. 

It  has  great  power  to  grow  under  dry  conditions, 
but  will  also  grow  better  where  moisture  is  more  abun- 
dant Its  highest  utility  will  likely  consist  in  re-cloth- 


334  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW 

ing  ranges,  where  other  grasses  have  failed,  through 
overstocking,  hence  it  is  not  likely  to  be  a  rotation 
grass.  When  cultivated,  it  will  grow  and  thrive  un- 
der conditions  more  dry  than  would  be  suitable  for 
other  cultivated  grasses. 

Blue  grama  is  a  nutritious  and  palatable  grass  and 
stands  grazing  better  than  almost  any  other  rang^  grass. 
This  is  owing,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  dense  turf  which 
it  forms,  notwithstanding  that  it  is  a  bunch  grass.  The 
hay  is  considered  about  the  best  produced  on  south- 
western ranges  and,  in  some  areas,  is  about  the  only 
hay  obtainable.  The  seed  can  be  obtained,  under  cul- 
tivation, like  that  of  other  grasses,  by  stripping  or 
reaping  and  threshing,  but  information  with  reference 
to  growing  it  is  very  meagre. 

Blue  grama  is  certainly  deserving  of  careful  experi- 
ment, more  especially  in  the  range  states.  At  the 
Oregon  Railroad  and  Navigation  Company's  station 
at  Walla  Walla,  Washington,  in  1899,  it  gave  the  most 
satisfactory  results  in  growing  hay  and  seed,  among 
the  many  varieties  tested  at  that  station. 


CHAPTEE  XV. 

TEMPORARY  PASTURES. 

Pastures  are  of  two  kinds,  temporary  and  perma- 
nent. The  former,  sometimes  called  rotation  pastures, 
are  grown  to  provide  grazing  for  but  a  limited  num- 
ber of  years;  in  some  instances,  for  only  one  season 
and  seldom  for  more  than  three  seasons.  The  second 
are  grown  to  furnish  grazing  for  an  indefinite  num- 
ber of  years,  usually  for  a  long  period  and  in  some 
instances,  as  in  the  case  of  range  lands  and  lands  that 
are  untillable,  for  all  time.  The  term  rotation  pastures 
is  applied  to  the  former  because  they  form  a  part  of 
a  regular  or  irregular  rotation  grown  in  conjunction 
with  grain  and  other  crops. 

Temporary  pastures  are  usually,  but  not  always, 
grown  in  some  sort  of  alternation  with  crops  grown 
to  provide  hay  or  soiling  food,  but  usually  the  former. 
In  nearly  all  instances,  when  hay  is  taken  from  these 
crops,  it  is  taken  from  the  first  crop.  Sometimes  the 
crop  is  made  into  hay  for  two  successive  seasons  and 
then  pastured  for  one  or  more  years.  In  some  in- 
stances but  one  crop  of  hay  is  taken  and  one  of  pasture ; 
in  others  several  crops  of  both  are  taken.  More  com- 
monly, however,  hay  is  grown  for  two  successive  sea- 
sons and  the  crop  is  then  pastured  for  one  or  more 
seasons.  The  hay  crops  are  taken  first  because  larger 


336  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

yields  are  obtained  then  than  could  be  obtained  later, 
and  because  weed  growth  is  thus  better  kept  in  check 
than  it  would  be  if  the  first  crop  were  grazed. 

When  growing  these  pastures,  a  due  regard  must 
be  had  to  the  quick  setting  of  the  grasses  and  varieties 
must  be  chosen  that  reach  a  maximum  of  production 
quickly,  as  for  instance  timothy.  Grasses  that  do  not 
reach  the  zenith  of  productiveness  for  several  years, 
as  for  instance  blue  grass,  should  not  be  sown  in  these 
pastures.  In  very  many  cases,  clover,  in  one  or  more 
of  its  varieties,  is  made  to  form  a  part  of  these  pastures. 
In  growing  them  no  combination  is  more  frequently 
used  than  timothy  and  clover.  Careful  attention" should 
also  be  given  to  the  choice  of  varieties  that  mature  at 
nearly  the  same  seasons  of  the  year.  The  necessity  for 
this  arises  from  the  advantage  to  the  hay  crop  when 
all  the  grasses  composing  it  can  be  harvested  at  the 
proper  season.  In  laying  down  permanent  pastures, 
the  opposite  course  should  be  adopted  in  order  to  fur- 
nish continuous  growth  throughout  the  season. 

When  pastures  are  wanted  for  but  one  season,  they 
are  usually  furnished  by  growing  clover  of  one  or 
more  varieties,  millet  in  one  of  its  varieties,  sorghum, 
one  of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  vetches,  rape,  kale 
and  the  small  cereal  grains  sown  alone  or  in  conjunc- 
tion. The  growing  of  these  for  pastures  is  discussed 
in  "Forage  Crops  Other  Than  Grasses"  by  the  author. 
Readers  who  desire  information  with  reference  to  the 
growing  of  these  pastures  are  referred  to  the  said  vol- 
ume. 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.  337 

GEASSES    ADAPTED    TO   VARIOUS    CONDITIONS. 

Since  grasses  differ  much  in  the  degree  of  their 
adaptation  to  various  conditions,  a  brief  discussion  with 
reference  to  such  adaptation  will  follow.  The  question 
will  be  discussed  from  the  standpoint  of  conditions  such 
as  apply  to  soil,  climate  and  ability  to  grow  under  shade. 

For  Upland  Pastures. — In  the  northern  states  and 
Canada,  cultivated  grasses,  best  adapted  to  ordinary 
upland  soils  in  producing  temporary  pastures,  are  tim- 
othy, orchard  grass,  Russian  brome,  redtop,  and  west- 
ern rye  grass.  Meadow  Fescue  and  tall  oat  grass  are 
not  included,  since  several  years  are  required  to  grow 
them  at  their  best.  Timothy,  though  not  of  highest 
value  in  producing  pasture  through  the  season,  is,  never- 
theless, extensively  sown  for  such  a  use,  since  it  will 
grow  over  a  wide  area,  sets  quickly  and  has  special 
adaptation  for  being  sown  with  the  red  clovers  on  up- 
land soils.  When  Russian  brome  is  wanted  for  tem- 
porary pastures,  it  should  be  sown  thickly  so  as  to  get 
a  full  stand  the  year  after  sowing.  The  method  most 
commonly  adopted  in  obtaining  temporary  grazing  in 
the  North  is  by  sowing  timothy  and  red  clover,  as  a 
full  stand  of  these  may  be  obtained  the  year  after 
sowing  them.  Blue  grass  and  white  clover  come  into 
these  pastures  in  many  sections  without  being  sown. 
In  much  of  northwestern  Canada,  this  combination 
is  not  successful  since  clover,  heretofore,  has  failed  to 
grow  satisfactorily.  When  these  pastures  are  to  be 
maintained  for  four  to  six  years,  more  attention  should 
be  given  to  adding  the  seed  of  orchard  grass  and  redtop 
than  has  been  given  to  the  sowing  of  these  in  the 


338  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

past.  The  grasses  of  lesser  value  for  the  conditions 
named  are  Italian  rye,  tall  oat  and  perennial  rye 
grasses. 

In  the  southern  states  those  grasses  best  adapted  to 
such  conditions  are  tall  oat,  orchard,  redtop  and  in 
some  parts  timothy  and  rescue  grass.  Those  of  less 
value  for  pasture  include  Italian  rye,  perennial  rye, 
velvet  grass  and  in  some  parts  carpet  grass.  Bermuda 
and  Texas  blue  grasses  are  both  adapted  to  permanent 
grazing. 

For  Slough  Lands. — In  the  northern  states  and  Can- 
ada, the  cultivated  grasses,  best  adapted  to  slough  lands 
and  such  as  are  low-lying  but  drained,  are  timothy, 
redtop  and  Russian  brome.  Any  one  of  these  alone 
or  in  combination  may  be  made  to  furnish  good  graz- 
ing in  such  situations  better  than  they  will  furnish  on 
ordinary  upland.  The  grazing  may  be  further  im- 
proved by  sowing  alsike  and  white  clover  with  these 
pastures.  The  mixture,  most  frequently  sown  on  such 
lands,  is  a  combination  of  timothy,  redtop  and  alsike 
clover.  The  cultivated  grasses  less  frequently  sown 
on  such  lands  include  fowl  meadow,  rough  stalked 
meadow  and  Italian  rye  grasses. 

In  the  southern  states,  redtop  is  the  best  pasture 
grass  for  such  situations.  Timothv  and  also  Italian 

O  f 

rye  grass  will  answer  in  some  localities.  In  the  South, 
however,  it  is  relatively  more  important  that  temporary 
grass  pastures  shall  be  supplemented  by  pastures  fur- 
nished by  sowing  certain  grasses  alone  or  in  mixtures. 
Further  reference  will  be  made  to  the  sowing  of  these 
in  the  present  chapter. 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.  339 

For  Sandy  Lands. — The  range  of  adaptation  in  cul- 
tivated grasses  for  sandy  or  gravelly  lanjds  is  not  wide 
and  it  narrows  as  the  conditions  become  drier.  For 
temporary  grazing  on  such  lands,  winter  rye,  not  a 
grass  in  the  ordinary  use  of  the  word,  will  furnish 
more  pasture  than  anything  else.  Of  the  true  and 
valuable  cultivated  grasses,  Russian  brome  stands  first 
in  adaptation  for  such  situations,  but  even  this  grass 
will  not  provide  abundant  grazing  on  such  lands.  Where 
moisture  is  ample,  the  production  on  these  lands  may 
be  greatly  stimulated  by  fertilizing  them  and  then 
sowing  red  clover  along  with  the  grass.  This  is  one 
of  the  situations  in  which  sowing  quack  grass  seed 
may  in  some  instances  be  admissible  in  the  North,  and 
velvet  grass  in  the  South,  where  Russian  brome  grass 
does  not  succeed  so  well.  In  these  southern  pastures, 
Japan  and  Buffalo  clovers  will  prove  helpful  in  sup- 
plementing the  grazing. 

It  may  also  be  found,  especially  in  the  dry  uplands 
of  the  West  and  Southwest,  that  it  may  be  advisable  to 
introduce  tall  grama  (Bouteloua  racemosa)  and  blue 
grama  (Bouteloua  oHigostachya) ,  but  more  experience 
in  growing  these  is  wanted  before  pronouncing  defi- 
nitely with  reference  to  this  question. 

For  Dry  Areas. — For  dry  areas  such  as  those  of  the 
semi-arid  belt  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains  and  in  cer- 
tain of  the  plains  within  the  mountains,  it  is  at  least 
questionable  if  any  of  the  cultivated  grasses  will  be 
found  any  improvement  over  those  which  nature  has 
placed  there.  Nor  has  the  fact  been  fully  demon- 
strated, that  any  of  these  can  be  established  over  wide 


340  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

areas  of  the  range  in  the  absence  of  cultivation.  It 
may  yet  prove,  however,  that  Russian  brome  and  blue 
grama  may  be  found  able  to  supplant  the  grasses 
growing  in  certain  areas  of  the  prairie  where  the  for- 
mer have  in  part  succumbed  to  close  pasturing.  This 
question  is  further  discussed  in  Chapter  XVIII.  (See 
p.  452.) 

For  Wet  Soils. — Soils,  that  are  saturated  with  water 
during  any  considerable  portion  of  the  year,  are  ill 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  grasses  that  are  valuable, 
when  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  food  producing 
properties.  Those  that  are  covered  with  water  an- 
nually for  any  considerable  time  have  still  lower  adap- 
tation for  such  production.  The  deeper  the  water  that 
covers,  and  the  longer  the  period  of  such  covering, 
the  less  valuable  is  the  grass  production  that  follows. 
If  better  grasses  are  to  be  grown,  the  lowering  of  the 
water  should  first  engage  the  attention  of  the  grower. 
Where  this  cannot  be  done,  the  work  of  improvement 
is  well  nigh  hopeless.  Grasses  and  sedges  that  grow 
under  these  conditions  are  usually  coarse,  low  in  nu- 
tritive qualities  and  still  lower  relatively  in  palatabil- 
ity.  Some  grasses,  however,  grow  in  such  situations 
that  may  possess  considerable  feeding  value.  Such 
is  what  is  popularly  termed  blue  joint  (Calamagrostis 
canadensis)  which  grows  in  certain  of  the  swamps  of 
Minnesota,  saturated  in  winter  and  ordinarily  dry  in 
summer.  Others  are  valuable  for  manufacturing.  Such 
is  wire  grass  (Carex  vulpenoidea)  which  grows  in  peat 
swamps  and  others  again  are  valuable  only  for  litter. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  improvement  that  takes 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.    .        341 

place  in  the  grasses  that  grow  on  soils  that  were  marshy 
as  drainage  progresses.  The  impassable  muskeg,  for 
instance,  in  the  northern  states  will  sustain  only  the 
Labrador  Tea  shrub.  Lower  the  waters  of  the  mus- 
keg, and  wire  grass  dies  to  make  way  for  some 
better  grass — how  much  better  will  be  determined 
by  the  character  of  the  underlying  peat.  The  evolu- 
tion that  may  be  accomplished  by  the  drainage  of 
some  marshes  is  very  great.  But  this  does  not  apply 
to  all  marshes,  as  in  some  the  peat  is  of  such  a  char- 
acter that  it  cannot  be  speedily  made  to  sustain  a  vig- 
orous vegetation  for  a  prolonged  period,  after  the  re- 
moval of  the  water. 

Some  grasses  will  grow  well  in  lands  so  low  as  to  be 
saturated  for  several  days  and  even  weeks,  when  the 
weather  is  cool,  providing  the  water  does  not  rise  above 
the  surface  or  does  not  cover  it  more  than  two  or  three 
inches.  The  four  valuable  grasses  best  adapted  to 
such  situations  are  Russian  brome,  redtop,  fowl  meadow, 
timothy;  alsike  clover  is  also  possessed  of  such  adap- 
tation. During  warm  weather,  such  saturation  is  usual- 
ly injurious. 

For  Growing  in  Shade. — Grasses  differ  much  in  their 
adaptation  for  growing  in  shade.  As  the  country  grows 
older,  it  is  legitimate  to  expect  that  park-like  pastures 
for  live  stock  will  more  and  more  abound.  If  this  ex- 
pectation is  realized,  the  question  of  adaptation  in 
grasses  to  such  conditions  will  become  increasingly 
important.  Orchard  grass,  heretofore,  has  stood  high- 
est in  the  popular  estimate  for  being  grown  under, 
such  conditions;  meadow  fescue  can  also  endure  con- 


342  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

siderablc  shade.  It  may  yet  be  found,  however,  that 
Russian  brome  will  rival  even  orchard  grass  in  its  abil- 
ity to  grow  beneath  the  boughs  of  trees.  At  the  Indian 
Head  experimental  farm,  Assiniboia,  Canada,  this  grass 
is  virtually  covering  the  ground  amid  the  windbreaks 
on  the  farm.  Kentucky  blue  grass  has  considerable 
power  to  grow  in  such  situations.  In  growing  any 
grass  beneath  the  shade  of  trees,  the  fact,  that  the  feed- 
ing value  of  the  same  is  lessened  in  proportion  as  the 
density  of  the  shade  increases,  should  not  be  overlooked. 

GRASSES    FOR    THE    STATES    AND    PROVINCES. 

The  attempt  will  be  made  to  name  the  grasses  that 
are  suitable  for  furnishing  temporary  meadows  and 
pastures,  adapted  to  the  various  states  of  the  Union 
and  the  different  provinces  of  Canada.  To  facilitate 
this  work  these  \vill  be  divided  into  several  groups.  In 
making  these  divisions  the  plan  will  be  to  include  the 
states'  and  provinces  in  the  same  group  in  which  the 
production  is  similar  or  approximately  so. 

Fvr  the  Northeastern  States. — -The  northeastern 
states  are  intended  to  include  in  this  discussion  ail 
those  states  that  lie  north  of  the  Ohio  and  Potomac 
rivers  and  east  of  Lake  Michigan  and  Illinois. 

The  grasses  which  have  suitable  adaptation  for  these 
are  those  which  have  suitable  adaptation  also  for  the 
provinces  of  Canada  east  from  Lake  Huron  to  the  At- 
lantic. The  grasses  which  will  best  furnish  temporary 
pastures  in  these  include  timothy,  orchard  grass  and 
redtop,  valuable,  all  things  considered,  in  the  order 
named.  Notwithstanding  that  the  value  of  orchard 
grass  for  grazing  may  be  intrinsically  superior,  timothy 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.  343 

fits  so  well  with  medium  red,  mammoth  and  alsike 
clovers  for  growing  hay  that  it  is  almost  invariably 
sown  with  one  of  these  and  mowed  for  one  or  two 
years ;  then  pastured  for  about  the  same  length  of  time 
before  the  sod  is  broken. 

For  the  relative  amounts  of  seed  to  sow  when  tim- 
othy is  sown  with  medium  red  clover,  with  mammoth 
clover,  or  with  alsike  clover,  see  p.  69.  If  sown  with 
two  of  these,  the  quantity  is  reduced.  As  previously 
intimated,  timothy  and  medium  red  clover  are  more 
commonly  sown  on  uplands;  timothy  and  alsike  are 
sown  on  lowlands.  Orchard  grass  is  more  commonly 
sown  in  conjunction  with  medium  red  clover.  For  the 
proper  amounts  of  seed  to  sow,  see  p.  140;  for  the 
amount  to  sow  alone,  see  p.  140.  Redtop,  as  previous- 
ly intimated,  has  highest  adaptation  for  low  lying  lands 
not  only  because  it  grows  better  in  these,  but  because 
these  are  usually  grazed  for  a  longer  period  than  up- 
lands before  being  broken,  which  better  suits  the  con- 
siderable time  required  by  this  grass  to  become  estab- 
lished. But  upland  soils  also  may  be  so  congenial  to 
the  growth  of  this  grass,  that  it  may  prove  profitable 
also  to  sow  it  in  these,  when  the  pastures  are  not  of 
short  duration.  When  medium  red  or  mammoth  clov- 
ers are  sown  on  upland  soils  along  with  timothy,  or- 
chard grass  and  redtop  to  provide  hay  and  pasture 
about  C  pounds  of  either  of  the  clovers  per  acre  and  3 
pounds  of  each  of  the  other  grasses  should  be  sufficient. 
Redtop  is  usually  sown  on  lowlands  with  timothy  and 
alsike  clover.  For  the  amounts  of  seed  to  sow,  see 
p.  158. 


344  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

In  the  area  named,  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  white 
clover  are  much  prone  to  come  into  the  pastures  even 
though  temporary  in  character,  hence,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  sow  them. 

The  grasses  with  less  adaptation  for  such  pastures 
in  these  states  include  Russian  brome,  tall  oat,  rough 
stalked  meadow  and  fowl  meadow  grasses.  Russian 
brome  will  grow  well  over  all  this  area  as  pasture  or 
as  hay,  but  it  is  slow  in  becoming  established.  It 
is  less  easy  of  establishment  than  some  of  the  others 
named,  and  it  is  less  necessary  to  grow  it  than  under 
other  climatic  conditions.  A  few  pounds  of  tall  oat 
grass  seed  sown  along  with  clover  and  timothy  or 
clover  and  orchard  grass  may  prove  helpful.  Two 
pounds  of  alsike  clover  seed  may  also  render  good  serv- 
ice when  sown  with  one  or  more  of  these  grasses  and 
clovers,  in  certain  upland  soils. 

In  all  the  area  now  being  considered,  these  grasses 
may  be  sown  alone  or  with  a  nurse  crop,  but  prefer- 
ably with  the  latter,  as  then  a  crop  is  secured  while 
the  pastures  are  becoming  established. 

For  the  Southeastern  States. — This  group  of  states 
comprises  those  which  lie  between  the  Ohio  and  Poto- 
mac Rivers  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  also  the  states  of 
Arkansas,  Louisiana  and  that  portion  of  Texas  which 
is  adjacent  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  grasses  in  it,  best  adapted  to  the  production  of 
temporary  pastures  and  meadows  include  orchard,  tall 
oat,  redtop  and  timothy,  valuable  probably  in  the  order 
named,  when  considered  in  their  adaptation  to  the 
whole  region.  These  grasses  are  sown  singly  or  in 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.  345 

combination,  with  or  without  a  nurse  crop.  The  best 
season  for  sowing  is  the  autumn,  after  the  fall  rains 
come  and  early  enough  for  the  grass  to  get  a  firm  hold 
upon  the  soil,  before  the  advent  of  winter.  In  cer- 
tain parts  of  this  area,  especially  those  that  lie  to  the 
northward,  red  and  alsike  clovers  may  supplement  these 
grasses,  but  toward  the  Gulf  the  conditions  are  not 
highly  favorable  to  the  growth  of  these.  When  these 
grasses  are  sown  alone  28  pounds  of  orchard  grass 
should  suffice  per  acre;  24  pounds  of  tall  oat  grass; 
28  pounds  of  redtog  and  12  pounds  of  timothy.  For 
temporary  pastures,  orchard  grass  shoufd  probably  be 
given  the  first  place  and  for  temporary  meadows  tall 
oat  grass;  but  for  those  more  permanent  in  character, 
redtop  would  probably  be  more  valuable;  in  portions 
of  Virginia,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  timothy  should 
be  given  first  place.  In  combination,  orchard  and 
tall  oat  grasses  grow  well  together,  using  14  pounds 
of  seed  of  the  former  per  acre  and  12  pounds  of  the 
latter.  White  clover  or  Japan  clover  (Lespcdeza 
striata)  usually  comes  into  these  pastures  when  not 
broken  for  two  or  three  years.  If  red  clover  is  sown 
with  orchard  and  redtop  grasses,  not  more  than  4  to 
6  pounds  of  the  seed  will  be  required  and  some  re- 
duction may  be  made  in  the  amounts  of  the  seed  sown 
of  these  respective  grasses. 

Southward  tall  oat  grass  and  rescue  grass  will  give 
the  best  probable  results  among  grasses  and  Japan 
clover  among  clovers.  Rescue  grass  is  an  annual  and 
when  sowing  it  for  pasture  or  to  provide  hay  use  30 
pounds  of  seed.  When  Japan  clover  is  sown  alone 


346  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

use  12  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  When  sown  together 
use  half  the  amount  of  the  seed  of.  each  and  sow  the  for- 
mer in  the  autumn  and  the  latter  in  the  spring.  Orch- 
ard grass  may  also  have  a  place.  In  all  these  states, 
however,  unless  it  be  those  lying  northward,  the  plan 
of  growing  temporary  pasture  and  fodder  from  cer- 
tain annuals  sown  in  the  autumn  is  to  he  commended, 
since  these  furnish  excellent  winter  and  spring  graz- 
ing. (See  p.  356.)  The  best  common  grazing  is  ob- 
tained from  Bermuda  grass. 

Next  in  adaptation  to  the  grasses  named  would  be 
Italian  and  perennial  rye  grasses;  these  have  scarcely 
received  that  attention  in  the  South  which  their  merits 
claim. 

For  the  Canadian  Northwest. — This  division  in- 
cludes all  the  provinces  of  Canada  between  Lake  Su- 
perior" and  the  Rocky  mountains.  The  conditions  are 
much  the  same  also  in  the  Red  River  valley  in  Minne- 
sota and  'North  Dakota. 

The  three  best  grasses  for  pasture  and  meadow  in 
all  this  region  are  Russian  brome,  timothy  and  west- 
ern rye  grass  probably  in  the  order  named.  The  first 
named  is  decidedly  in  the  lead  as  a  pasture  grass.  All 
in  all,  it  is  also  important  as  a  producer  of  hay  for 
feeding  on  the  farm,  but  timothy  must  be  assigned 
first  place  in  growing  hay  for  market.  These  grasses 
may  be  sown  alone  or  in  combination.  When  Russian 
brome  is  sown  alone  to  provide  pasture  or  hay  quickly, 
sow  18  pounds  of  seed  per  acre;  of  timothy,  12  pounds ; 
of  western  rye,  18  pounds.  When  Russian  brome  and 
timothy  are  sown  together  apply  9  and  6  pounds  of 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.  347 

these  respectively;  this  combination  meets  with  con- 
siderable favor.  When  Russian  brome  and  western 
rye  are  sown  together  use  9  and  9  pounds  respectively. 
This  combination  is  specially  adapted  to  areas  where 
the  conditions  are  dry.  When  Russian  brome,  tim- 
othy and  western  rye  are  sown  together,  about  6  pounds 
of  the  seed  of  each  would  be  ample  to  sow.  Whether 
clover  in  any  of  its  varieties  can  be  sown  to  advantage 
in  this  area,  or  in  any  part  or  parts  of  it,  to  supplement 
the  grasses  named,  has  yet  to  be  demonstrated. 

For  the  Upper  Mississippi  Basin. — This  group  of 
states  includes  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Iowa, 
Missouri  and  eastern  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  a  limited 
portion  of  eastern  North  and  South  Dakota. 

In  the  northern  portion  of  this  area,  the  leading 
grasses  for  temporary  grazing  and  also  for  hay  are 
timothy,  redtop,  Russian  brome,  medium  red  and  al- 
sike  clover.  On  the  uplands,  timothy  and  red  clover 
are  more  commonly  sown,  as  in  the  states  comprised 
in  the  northeastern  group.  On  the  lowlands,  timothy, 
redtop  and  alsike  clover  are  the  grasses  most  frequently 
sown.  In  portions  of  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin,  in- 
cluding much  of  eastern  Minnesota  and  wide  areas  in 
Wisconsin,  once  covered  with  hardwood  forest,  the  adap- 
tation of  the  soil  for  the  various  kinds  of  clover  and 
for  blue  grass  is  remarkably  high.  Hence,  in  these 
areas  blue  grass  and  white  clover  come  into  the  pas- 
tures, when  of  any,  considerable  duration,  without  be- 
ing sown.  The  same  is  true  of  blue  grass  in  much 
of  the  lowland  soil.  The  adaptation  of  meadow  fescue 
and  meadow  foxtail  have  not  been  well  tested  in  these 
Grasses — 23. 


348  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

areas,  but  Russian  brome  has  been  sufficiently  tested 
to  demonstrate  that  it  stands  high  in  adaptation  both 
for  hay  and  pasture.  What  has  been  said  of  those 
portions  of  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin,  will  also  apply, 
in  the  main,  to  Iowa  and  Illinois  except  that  adapta- 
tion for  growing  clover  in  these,  though  high,  is  not 
so  high  as  the  portions  of  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin 
that  were  specified.  Orchard  grass  and  tall  oat  grass 
have  but  medium  adaptation.  In  southwestern  and 
western  Minnesota  and  in  the  Dakotas,  timothy  and 
clover  pastures  are  of  short  duration,  although  the 
production  of  both  are  improving  and  Russian  bromc 
is  growing  in  favor.  In  Missouri,  timothy  and  clover 
do  well  in  providing  hay  and  grazing,  but  in  the  parts 
of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  included,  while  clovers  flour- 
ish, timothy  does  not  quite  equal  orchard  grass  in  fur- 
nishing pasture;  the  same  is  true  of  Russian  brome. 
Alfalfa  is  coming  to  be  the  leading  plant  in  providing 
hay  and  swine  pasture  in  eastern  Kansas  and  Ne- 
braska; its  cultivation  for  these  is  rapidly  extending 
in  the  other  portions  of  the  area  now  being  considered. 

For  the  Semi-Arid  Belt. — In  this  group  of  states 
are  included  all  those  that  lie  east  of  the  Cascade  and 
Coast  mountains,  exclusive  of  the  irrigated  valleys 
and  west  of  the  states  included  in  the  upper  Missis- 
sippi and  southeastern  groups. 

In  the  greater  portion  of  this  area,  the  pasture  and 
hay  grasses  are  such  as  nature  provides;  the  former 
on  the  uplands  and  the  latter  in  the  depressions.  These 
vary  with  the  locality  and  the  degree  of  the  humidity. 
They  include  a  great  variety  of  grasses,  nearly  all  of 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.  349 

which  are  possessed  of  high  nutrition,  but  the  major 
portion  are  of  a  somewhat  dwarfed  habit  of  growth 
and  they  grow  more  sparsely  as  moisture  decreases. 
Acre  for  acre,  as  compared  with  sown  pastures,  these 
pastures  are  relatively  low  in  producing  power;  wheth- 
er in  this  respect  they  can  be  improved  by  other  grasses 
is  problematical.  This  question  is  further  discussed 
in  Chapter  XVIII. 

On  many  of  the  uplands,  however,  at  the  base  of 
the  mountains,  usually  spoken  of  as  the  "foothills," 
pasture  and  hay  from  such  plants  as  alfalfa,  timothy 
and  other  grasses  can  be  grown,  but  the  range  of  such 
production  has  not  yet  been  ascertained.  The  chief 
supplies  of  fodder,  required  to  supplement  grazing 
in  the  winter  in  these  areas,  will  come  from  the  irri- 
gated valleys  found  with  more  or  less  frequency  in 
much  of  the  range  country.  However,  on  the  uplands 
of  Washington,  Idaho  and  Oregon,  taking  Moscow  as 
a  centre,  pasture  or  meadow  may  be  obtained  from 
orchard  grass,  Russian  brome,  tall  oat  grass  or  meadow 
fescue. 

The  Irrigated  Valleys. — The  reference  here  is  not 
only  to  the  valleys  now  irrigated  in  the  region  that  is 
being  considered  but  to  those  also  that  are  susceptible 
of  irrigation,  and  that  will  unquestionably  be  irrigated 
in  the  future  that  is  not  far  distant.  These  include 
all  the  irrigable  valleys  in  the  entire  Rocky  mountain 
districts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

These  valleys  are  capable  of  producing  for  pasture 
or  for  hay  all  or  nearly  all  the  valuable  grasses  and 
clovers  that  can  be  grown  on  the  continent ;  nor  is  the 


350  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

character  of  the  adaptation  greatly  different  until  the 
streams  leave  the  mountain  districts,  since  the  cli- 
mate within  reasonable  proximity  to  the  coast  is  mild 
and  even  in  character.  When,  however,  the  river  val- 
leys leave  the  mountains,  more  especially  those  that 
flow  inland  rather  than  seaward,  the  mean  tempera- 
ture diifers  considerably  with  latitude.  The  grasses 
and  clovers  that  may  be  grown  there  along  the  entire 
coast  under  irrigation  are  nearly  the  same.  In  the 
valleys  that  extend  eastward  from  the  mountains,  such 
grasses  as  are  adapted  only  to  mild  climates  could  not 
be  grown  successfully  in  the  northern  valleys;  nor  is 
this  to  be  regretted  since  these  are  not  so  valuable  in- 
trinsically as  those  that  are  more  rugged  and  enduring. 
All  grasses  and  clovers  are  not  equally  well  adapted 
to  irrigation.  Those  that  have  such  adaptation  in  a 
marked  degree  are  happily  sufficiently  numerous  to 
meet  all  the  needs  of  those,  who  till  the  soil.  Promi- 
nent among  the  grasses  that  have  high  adaptation  for 
irrigation  are  timothy,  redtop,  Russian  brome,  orchard 
grass,  meadow  fescue,  perennial  and  Italian  rye  grasses ; 
among  the  clovers  are  alfalfa,  medium  red,  mammoth, 
alsike  and  the  white.  In  productive  power  and  dura- 
tion of  life,  alfalfa  is  king  among  the  clovers  and  in 
productive  power  king  also  over  the  grasses.  With 
such  a  wide  range  of  valuable  grasses  to  choose  from, 
those  who  till  these  valleys  can  not  only  secure  hay  of 
any  combination  desired,  but  they  can  also  secure  enor- 
mous yields  of  the  same.  Heretofore,  but  little  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  grow  these  plants  in  combi- 
nation. In  growing  for  hay,  the  aim  should  be  to 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.  351 

combine  those  which  mature  at  nearly  the  same  period; 
alsike  clover  and  timothy  furnish"  one  of  the  best  of 
these  combinations,  more  especially  when  the  quality 
of  the  hay  is  considered.  In  growing  temporary  pas- 
tures, there  is  probably  no  better  combination  than 
medium  red  clover  and  orchard  grass.  In  growing  per- 
manent pastures,  all  the  grasses  and  clovers  enumer- 
ated above  could  be  used  if  desired  or  any  combination 
of  these  that  might  be  preferred. 

With  so  much  range  land  as  is  usually  found  bor- 
dering on  these  valleys  and  extending  back  from  them, 
the  land  of  the  valleys  is  not  likely  to  be  devoted  to  the 
extensive  growing  of  pastures  for  some  time  to  come. 
But  their  capacity  to  grow  these,  notwithstanding,  is 
very  great;  it  would  be  interesting  to  know  the  limit 
of  such  possible  productivity.  In  1900,  at  the  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  Farm  at  Bozeman,  Mon- 
tana, cattle  were  grazed  on  5.04  acres  of  irrigated  land 
for  an  average  of  109  2-3  days;  the  increase  in  weight 
made  was  456_0  pounds.  This  valued  at  4  cents  per 
pound  gave  a  net  profit  from  the  pasture  of  $36.19  per 
acre.  In  growing  such  pastures,  the  element  of  danger 
from  bloat  caused  by  eating  green  clover  will  be  largely 
eliminated  by  growing  grasses  in  combination  with  it. 

West  of  the  Cascades. — This  region  includes  thfc 
relatively  narrow  strip  of  land  between  the  Rocky 
mountains  and  the  Pacific  and  extending  from  Cali- 
fornia to  Alaska. 

All  the  grasses  that  have  been  discussed  in  this  work 
can  be  grown  in  some  part  of  this  area.  The  temper- 
ature is  mild  and  even,  during- much  of  the  year  and 


352  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

the  climate  is  also  moist.  During  nine  or  ten  months 
of  the  year,  the  gentle  rains  are  frequent.  This,  of 
course,  is  greatly  favorable  to  the  production  of  good 
pastures. 

It  is  simply  a  matter  of  choice  as  to  which  grasses 
shall  be  grown  for  temporary  hay  and  pasture  produc- 
tion. In  growing  hay  those  plants  should  be  chosen 
for  being  grown  singly  or  in  combinations  which  take 
the  market  most  readily.  At  present  timothy,  with  a 
moderate  quantity  of  alsike  clover  in  it, .  makes  an 
excellent  market  hay.  For  temporary  pastures,  me- 
dium, red  clover,  orchard  and  Italian  rye  grasses  should 
answer  well;  sowing  per  acre,  6  pounds  of  clover,  7 
pounds  of  orchard  grass  and  7  pounds  of  rye  grass. 

Pastures  Other  than  Grasses  and  Clover. — In  all  or 
nearly  all  sections  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
the  necessity  exists  for  growing  more  or  less  pasture 
for  the  various  classes  of  live  stock,  kept  upon  the  farm 
in  addition  to  such  as  are  obtained  from  clovers  and 
the  grasses  proper.  This  necessity  arises  from  the  fre- 
quency with  which  the  grass  and  clover  seeds  sown  fail 
to  make  a  stand  or  with  which  they  may  fail,  or  par- 
tially fail,  through  adverse  winter  weather.  It  is  pres- 
ent in  proportion  as  these  hazards  are  frequent  and 
severe;  as  the  locality  is  favorable  or  otherwise  to  the 
production  of  grass  pastures.  These  include  the  small 
cereal  grains,  leguminous  or  non-leguminous,  the  sac- 
charine and  non-saccharine  sorghums,  the  various  mil- 
lets, cow  peas  and  soy  beans,  rape  and  kale  and  for 
swine  such  roots  as  artichokes  and  peanuts.  The  most 
valuable  of  these  pastures  for  cattle  are  the  small  cereal 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.  353 

grains,  the  sorghums,  rape  and  kale,  cow  peas  and  soy 
beans  and  the  millets,  probably  in  the  order  named.  The 
most  valuable  for  sheep  are  rape  and  kale,  the  small 
cereal  grains,  the  sorghums,  the  millets,  cow  peas  and 
soy  beans,  probably  in  the  order  named.  The  most 
valuable  for  swine  are  the  small  grains,  cow  peas  and 
soy  beans,  artichokes  and  peanuts  and  the  sorghums, 
in  the  order  named.  The  most  valuable  by  far  of  the 
small  cereals  in  providing  grazing  is  winter  rye;  the 
most  valuable  of  the  pure  pasture  plants  is  rape  and 
the  most  valuable  of  the  sorghums  are  the  saccharine. 

This  whole  question,  however,  is  discussed  at  length 
by  the  author  in  the  book,  "Forage  Crops  Other  than 
Grasses/7  published  in  1900.  Headers  who  desire  fur- 
ther information  on  this  aspect  of  the  grazing  question 
are  referred  to  the  said  book. 

MISCELLANEOUS    DISCUSSIONS    UPON    TEMPORARY 
PASTURES. 

A  discussion  is  now  submitted  with  reference  to  the 
management  of  temporary  pastures;  also  with  refer: 
ence  to  the  influence  which  these  exert  upon  the  soil 
and,  through  it  upon  the  production  of  other  crops. 

Sowing  Temporary  Pastures. — This  question  has 
been  touched  upon  in  Chapter  II.  (see  page  36).  In 
sowing  temporary  pastures,  preparation  of  the  land, 
its  condition  as  to  cleanliness  and  fertilization,  the 
season  for  sowing  and  adaptation  of  the  grasses  to  the" 
needs  of  the  land,  the  climate  and  the  live  stock  which 
will  graze  upon  them  are  chiefly  to  be  considered.  The 
following  rules  may  be  submitted  with  reference  to  the 


354  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

i 

preparation  of  the  land:  1.  On  average  soils  aim  to 
have  the  seed  bed  fine  and  smooth  at  the  time  of  sow- 
ing the  seed.  2.  Seek  fine  pulverization  in  lands  not 
naturally  friable  when  preparing  the  seed  bed  in  spring, 
but  be  content  with  pulverization  less  fine  when  pre- 
paring the  same  for  autumn  sowing  in  climates  of 
much  rainfall  in  winter.  3.  On  soils  so  light  as  to  lift 
with  the  winds,  sow  on  an  uneven  surface  and  aim  to 
leave  the  surface  rough.  4.  Aim  so  to  prepare  the 
land  that  it  will  have  sufficient  moisture  near  enough 
the  surface  to  germinate  readily  the  seed  when  it  is 
sown. 

Since  nearly  all  grasses  start  more  feebly  and  grow 
more  slowly  at  the  first  than  the  small  cereal  grains, 
it  is  more  important  relatively  that  they  shall  be  sown 
on  clean  land,  however  it  may  be  cleaned.  Since  tem- 
porary pastures  tend  to  put  humus  in  the  soil  and  also 
available  fertility,  it  is  not  as  necessary  that  the  soil 
shall  be  well  supplied  with  humus  and  fertility  as 
when  sowing  many  other  crops;  the  growth  of  the  grass, 
nevertheless,  will  usually  be  proportionate '  to  the 
amount  of  Hth  in  the  soil.  It  is  not  usual  to  apply 
fresh  farmyard  manure  in  large  quantities  the  same 
season  that  lands  are  laid  down  to  grass,  .since  the 
growth  of  weeds  would  thereby  be  encouraged  to  the 
detriment  of  the  young  grass  plants.  If,  however, 
these  have  been  applied  to  some  cultivated  crop  grown, 
the  previous  season,  the  influence  is  beneficent  to  the 
growth  of  these.  The  weed  seeds  in  this  manure  have 
been  destroyed  and  the  residue  of  fertility  from  the 
manure  is  readily  available.  On  some  poor  sandy  soils, 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.  355 

however,  it  may  be  necessary  first  to  bury  a  green  crop, 
as  of  rye,  to  put  humus  in  the  soil  before  the  grains 
are  sown;  or  it  may  be  necessary  to  apply  some  arti- 
ficial fertility  on  the  same. 

As  a  rule,  the  best  results  will  be  obtained  from 
sowing  the  hardy  grasses  in  the  autumn,  north  or 
south.  In  the  North  it  is  important  that  these  shall 
be  sown  early  in  the  autumn ;  clovers  at  the  North  can 
be  sown  in  the  spring  or  summer  only;  in  the  South 
they  may  frequently  be  sown  with  advantage  in  the 
autumn,  as  soon  as  the  fall  rains  come.  Plants,  other 
than  grasses,  sown  to  provide  grazing  but  for  one  sea- 
son should  more  commonly  be  sown  as  early  as  possible 
in  spring,  but  to  this  there  are  some  exceptions.  Win- 
ter rye  is  sown  in  the  autumn  both  north  and  south ; 
in  the  South  all  the  small  cereal  crops  grown  for  such 
grazing  are  better  sown  in  the  early  autumn.  Usually 
in  climates  with  sufficient  rainfall,  grasses  and  clovers 
are  preferably  sown  with  nurse  crops,  whether  sown 
autumn  or  spring  in  the  North ;  in  the  South  these  are 
frequently  sown  in  autumn  without  nurse  crops,  since 
when-thus  sown  they  are  soon  ready  for  grazing. 

The  question  of  adaptation  of  the  grasses  to  the  needs 
of  the  land  involves  the  study  of  the  habits  of  growth 
in  each  variety  of  plant  grown  and  of  adaptation  of 
soils  to  the  growth  in  the  same.  The  more  rugged 
grasses  only  should  be  grown  under  hard  conditions 
of  soil  and  climate.  Under  favorable  conditions  of 
both,  varieties  less  rugged  but  probably  intrinsically 
more  valuable,  may  be  grown.  Unless  for  purposes 
of  experiment,  grasses  of  proved  adaptation  to  the 


356  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

climatic  conditions  only  should  be  grown. 
proper  are  considered  better  adapted  relatively  than 
the  clovers  to  furnish  grazing  for  horses.  Bo ih  are 
very  suitable  for  cattle  and  sheep,  and,  when  grown 
in  combination,  the  danger  from  bloat  is  practically 
eliminated.  The  latter  are  more  suitable  for  swine. 
Plants  grown  only  for  pasture,  as  rape,  are  most  suit- 
able for  sheep.  Those  which  furnish  the  most  succu- 
lence are  best  adapted  for  milk  production,  while  not 
too  much  succulence  gives  better  results  in  growing 
meat. 

Grazing  Temporary  Pastures. — When  grass  pastures 
are  sown  in  the  autumn  they  may  be  grazed  the  follow- 
ing season,  and  in  some  instances  southward  the  same 
autumn.  When  sown  in  the  spring,  and  especially 
when  sown  with  nurse  crops,  they  should  not  be  grazed 
the  same  season.  To  this  also  there  may  be  some  ex- 
ceptions, as  when,  for  instance,  the  growth  may  be  so 
strong  as  to  endanger  the  grasses  through  smothering 
under  snowfall.  When  the  cereal  grains  are  sown  for 
pasture,  they  should  be  pastured  from  the  time  they 
will  furnish  plentiful  grazing.  Grasses  and  clovers 
sown  along  with  them,  especially  on  porous  soils,  as 
the  black  loams  of  the  prairie,  will  be  benefited  by  such 
grazing  through  the  firming  of  the  soil,  and  the  more 
lacking  the  supply  of  moisture,  the  greater  will  be  the 
benefit.  On  some  soils  and  in  some  sections  autumn 
sown  cereals  may  be  grazed  during  the  winter  with 
benefit  to  the  crop.  Winter  wheat,  for  instance,  is  thus 
frequently  grazed  in  Kansas;  winter  rye  may  be  thus 
grazed  even  further  north.  On  rich  prairie  soils  wheat 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.  357 

and  oats  are  made  to  yield  more  in  moist  seasons  when 
grazed  by  sheep  for  a  time  in  the  spring.  This  benefit 
comes  largely  through  increased  stooling  in  the  plants. 

The  following  rules  apply  to  the  grazing  of  grass 
pastures:  1.  Never  graze  these  if  it  is  possible  to 
arrange  otherwise  when  the  pastures  are  so  wet  that 
the  land  will,  poach  or  become  impacted  as  a  result. 
2.  Close  grazing  lessens  production  in  the  pastures,  but 
in  dry  seasons  the  reduction  resulting  will  be  much 
more  than  in  wet  seasons.  3.  The  palatability  of  all 
kinds  of  plants  is  lessened  for  grazing  if  allowed  to 
form  the  seed  head,  and  to  prevent  this  it  may  be  nec- 
essary sometimes  to  use  the  mower.  4.  Close  grazing 
in  the  late  autumn  weakens  the  vitality  of  the  plants; 
one  result  of  which  is  they  will  not  start  so  quickly  or 
so  vigorously  in  the  spring. 

The  observations  now  submitted  apply  rather  to  pas- 
tures produced  by  the  small  cereal  grains:  1.  The 
further  from  the  earing  stage  they  are  kept  the  more 
pasture  they  will  furnish  and  the  longer  the  period 
during  which  it  will  grow.  2.  While  being  grazed, 
grass  pasture  should  be  accessible  on  which  the  animals 
can  be  pastured  in  time  of  wet,  when  grazing  would 
be  hurtful  to  grain  pastures.  3.  Because  of  the  suc- 
culence of  grain  pastures  and  to  avoid  unnecessary 
tramping,  the  animals  grazed  on  grain  pastures  should 
be  grazed  on  grass  pastures  at  night  and  also  during 
a  portion  of  each  day. 

In  pasturing  some  animals  grown  for  pasture,  haz- 
ard of  loss  is  incurred.  It  arises  from  the  following 
sources:  1.  When  rape  and  succulent  clovers  are 


358  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

being  grazed  loss  from  bloating  is  sometimes  incurred. 
2.  When  cattle  are  being  grazed  on  sorghum  and  Kaffir 
corn,  particularly  of  the  second  growth,  animals  some- 
times die  suddenly  while  grazing  on  the  same.  3. 
When  cattle  graze  on  cornstalks  in  the  late  autumn  and 
winter,  they  frequently  die  in  considerable  numbers. 
To  meet  the  first  danger  the  animals  should  be  grad- 
ually accustomed  to  the  pasture.  They  should  not  be 
turned  on  the  same  when  hungry,  and  but  cautiously 
when  the  plants  are  wet.  As  the  cause  of  hazard  from 
the  second  source  is  not  certainly  known,  it  cannot  be 
fully  met,  but  it  has  been  noticed  that  the  danger  is 
greatest  when  the  growth  of  the  plants  has  become 
stunted  from  drought.  The  cause  of  the  hazard  from 
the  third  source  is  likewise  not  known,  but  the  incurred 
loss  can  certainly  be  avoided  by  harvesting  the  corn 
at  the  proper  season  as  it  should  be  harvested,  and  then 
feeding  it  to  the  live  stock.  The  question  of  grazing 
is  discussed  at  some  length  in  the  book,  "Forage  Crops 
Other  than  Grasses,"  referred  to  above. 

Fertilizing  and  Renewing. — It  is  not  usual  to  apply 
commercial  fertilizers  to  stimulate  the  growth  of  pas- 
tures of  short  duration.  These  are  more  commonly 
applied  when  preparing  the  land,  when  sowing  the  seed 
or  while  the  grasses  sown  are  to  be  used  in  producing 
hay  and  before  they  are  to  be  used  as  pastures.  But 
where  it  is  desired  so  to  use  them  there  can  be  no 
objection  to  such  action,  providing  they  are  used  with 
discretion  and  judgment.  When  used,  the  kinds  to 
apply,  the  respective  amounts,  and  the  methods  of  ap- 
plying them  will  be  the  same  as  those  submitted  for 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.  359 

fertilizing  permanent  pastures.      (See  page  392.) 

When  temporary  pastures  are  to  be  fertilized,  farm- 
yard manure,  reduced  or  unreduced,  will  usually  give 
better  results  than  anything  else  that  can  be  applied. 
It  is  pre-eminently  adapted  to  such  a  use,  as  it  stimu- 
lates growth  in  the  grass  during  all  the  season  of  growth 
by  the  nutriment  which  it  furnishes;  in  winter  it  pro- 
tects the  roots  from  the  adverse  influences  of  cold 
winds  and  frost;  in  summer  it  acts  as  a  mulch,  thus 
protecting  the  plants  more  or  less  from  the  influences 
of  drought.  By  increasing  root  development  in  the 
soil,  it  adds  much  to  the  available  plant  food  for  the 
crops  that  follow.  The  fertilizer  may  be  applied  by 
spreading  it  over  the  pasture  evenly  at  any  season  of 
the  year  that  may  be  convenient,  but  to  apply  it  during 
the  first  months  of  grazing  will  to  some  extent  cover 
a  part  of  the  new  growth  made,  so  that  it  cannot  be 
eaten  by  the  stock.  Late  autumn  and  early  winter  are 
the  most  suitable  seasons  for  such  applications,  because 
of  the  lessened  pressure  of  farm  work;  because  of  the 
protection  which  it  gives  to  the  grasses  and  because  of 
great  stimulus  which  it  gives  to  the  growth  of  these 
as  soon  as  the  growth  begins  in  the  spring  through  the 
nutriment  carried  down  to  the  grass  by  the  spring  rains. 
When  the  snowfall  is  not  too  heavy,  it  may  be  applied 
with  much  advantage  during  all  the  season  when  the 
ground  is  frozen. 

The  chief  objections  to  applying  farmyard  manure 
thus  have  been  urged  :  First,  when  applied  fresh,  many 
weed  seeds  which  will  grow  later  are  carried  in  it ;  sec- 
ond, much  of  it  is  lost  through  the  wasting  of  early 


360  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

rains ;  and,  third,  the  pasture  resulting  will  be  distaste- 
ful to  stock.  The  answers  to  these  objections  are :  First. 
it  is  only  where  careless  farming  prevails  that  noxious 
weed  seeds  abound;  second,  the  loss  of  fertilization 
through  washing  is  not  great  except  on  side  hills  being 
less  than  the  loss  which  occurs  by  handling  manure  in 
any  other  way;  third,  while  the  grazing  for  a  week  or 
two  may  be  distasteful  to  live  stock,  this  distastefulness 
soon  leaves  it  entirely,  so  that  the  forage  will  be  all 
eaten  by  the  stock.  To  destroy  weed  seeds  on  well 
managed  farms  by  fermenting  the  manure  would  be 
a  very  expensive  process,  because  of  the  great  loss  of 
nitrogen  in  the  manure  during  the  fermenting.  It  is 
probably  the  most  expensive  process  that  can  be  adopt- 
ed in  fighting  weeds.  The  practice  which  draws  manure 
from  the  stables  and  applies  it  on  the  land  is  an  excel- 
lent one. 

When  the  beneficent  results  from  applying  farmyard 
manure  are  considered,  it  is  somewhat  surprising  that 
more  attention  is  not  given  to  the  manufacture  of  the 
same,  in  areas  where  tlie  necessity  for  purchasing  com- 
mercial fertilizers  exists.  It  would  seem  quite  possible 
for  the  farmer  to  purchase  live  stock,  if  necessary,  and 
to  purchase  food,  especially  grain  food,  on  which  to 
feed  them,  without  loss,  thus  getting  the  fertilizer  as 
a  reward  for  the  labor.  That  would  be  a  much  cheaper 
method  of  obtaining  fertilizer  than  buying  it  in  hard 
cash. 

The  renewing  of  temporary  pastures  is  not  nearly 
so  important  as  the  renewing  of  permanent  pastures, 
because  of  the  temporary  character  of  the  former.  The 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.  361 

renewing  of  permanent  pastures  is  discussed  in  Chap- 
ter XVI.  (see  page  392).  The  methods  of  renewing 
these  will  also  apply,  in  great  part,  at  least,  to  the  re- 
newal of  temporary  pastures. 

Influence  on  Succeeding  Crops. — Although  the  true 
grass  crops  are  not  nitrogen  gatherers  in  the  sense  in 
which  clover  and  other  legumes  are,  yet  it  is  important 
that  they  shall  be  grown  in  rotation,  in  all  or  nearly 
all  instances,  when  tilling  arable  soils.  Growing  them 
thus  in  the  rotation  is  less  necessary  when  clovers  form 
a  part  of  the  regular  rotation,  but  even  when  clovers 
are  grown,  it  will  usually  be  found  advantageous  to 
grow  grasses  also.  Among  the  benefits  which  result 
from  growing  grasses  in  the  rotation  are  the  following : 
1.  They  supply  the  land  with  humus.  2.  They  fur- 
nish plant  food  in  a  more  readily  available  form.  3. 
They  tend  to  check  the  growth  and  increase  of  weeds. 

It  is  not  easy  to  over-estimate  the  value  of  a  supply 
of  humus  in  the  soil.  It  would  probably  be  correct  to 
say  that  it  is  well  nigh  impossible  to  grow  good  crops 
without  keeping  the  land  sufficiently  supplied  with 
humus,  or  in  other  words,  vegetable  matter.  Such  mat- 
ter in  the  soil  promotes  aeration  in  stiff  soils  and  ren- 
ders them  more  friable,  increases  the  power  of  all  soils 
to  hold  moisture,  aids  in  the  chemical  transformation 
of  inorganic  substances  in  the  soil  and  renders  sub- 
stantial service  in  preventing  soils  from  being  washed 
away  by  an  excess  of  water  or  from  being  lifted  by  the 
winds.  Some  soils,  more  especially  those  composed  of 
fine  clay  particles  or  fine  deposit  when  long  cultivated 
without  any  replenishment  of  humus,  become  so  im- 


362  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

pacted  that  the  air  does  not  readily  penetrate  them 
sufficiently,  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  crops  which 
grow  upon  them.  Grass  roots  growing  in  the  same 
render  them  more  friable  by  separating  the  particles, 
and,  consequently,  more  easily  tilled.  The  labor  of 
pulverizing  these  soils  is  lessened  in  proportion  as  these 
are  present.  The  aid  thus  rendered  to  aeration  will 
be  readily  apparent,  since  the  humus  substances  that 
have  been  distributed  between  the  earth  particles  are 
easily  penetrated  by  the  air.  The  extent  to  which  such 
vegetable  substances  increase  the  power  of  soils  to  hold 
moisture  is  very  great.  They  act  like  a  sponge  in  the 
soil,  arresting  moisture  going  downward  or  upward  and 
holding  it  for  the  growing  crops.  The  service  thus 
rendered  in  leechy  soils  is  even  more  valuable  than  in 
those  that  are  retentive;  hence,  interjecting  these  crops 
frequently  into  the  rotation  is  one  of  the  surest  safe- 
guards against  drought.  The  way  in  which  they  trans- 
form inert  plant  life  in  the  soil  in  their  decay  into 
active  or  valuable  plant  food  cannot  be  discussed  here. 
The  fact  only  can  be  stated,  and  it  is  one  of  much 
significance  to  the  farmer.  The  influence  of  certain 
grass  plants  in  preventing  washing  and  gullying  is  fur- 
ther discussed  in  Chapter  XVI.  (see  page  399).  The 
extent  to  which  the  lifting  of  light  soils  by  wind  is  les- 
sened is  largely  dependent  on  the  kind  or  kinds  of 
grasses  grown  and  the  frequency  with  which  they  are 
grown.  Those  grasses  with  a  strong  and  matted  root 
system,  as  quack  grass,  best  serve  this  end.  The  influ- 
ence of  some  of  these  grasses  in  thus  preventing  soils 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES.  363 

from  lifting  after  they  have  been  ploughed  up  is,  in 
some  instances,  felt  for  at  least  three  years. 

While  the  grasses  proper  do  not,  like  clovers,  add 
in  the  same  way  to  plant  food  in  the  soil,  they  do  add 
materially  to  the  supply  of  available  plant  food.  Dur- 
ing the  processes  of  growth  they  search  out  and  take 
up  plant  food  from  the  soil  and  subsoil,  a  part  of  which 
is  retained  in  the  roots  broken  up  and  in  the  stubbles 
that  are  buried.  These,  in  their  decay,  furnish  such 
food  for  the  crops  that  follow  them  in  a  form  that  is 
easily  accessible.  The  grass  crops,  in  a  sense,  act  the 
part  of  scavengers  in  the  soil  for  the  crops  that  come 
after  them.  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  has  estimated  that  when 
grass  lands  are  broken  5  to  10  tons  of  dry  matter,  roots, 
leaves  and  stubbles  are  deposited  in  one  acre  by  the  grass 
crop. 

Grass  crops  check  the  growth  of  weeds  in  the  soil  in 
various  ways.  In  some  instances  they  crowd  them  out, 
as  in  the  case  of  blue  grass;  in  some,  as  when  mowed 
and  properly  pastured,  they  prevent  them  from  seed- 
ing; and  in  others,  as  when  they  are  broken  for  a  few 
years,  they  cause  the  seeds  of  many  weeds  to  perish 
that  are  lying  in  the  soils.  Pastures  and  meadows  of 
any  lengthened  duration  render  most  effective  service 
in  this  way,  as  is  evidenced  by  their  comparative  clean- 
liness when  first  broken  up. 

So  beneficent  are  the  influences  from  introducing 
grass  crops  frequently  into  the  rotation,  that  it  is 
probably  correct  to  say  that  the  instances  are  few  in 
which  successful  crop  husbandry  can  be  long  conducted 
in  their  absence.  Due  attention  to  this  question  would 
Grasses — 24. 


364  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

go  far  toward  revolutionizing  farming  in  wide  areas 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Particularly  would 
this  be  true  of  much  of  the  South,  of  the  corn  belt  in 
the  Mississippi  basin  and  of  nearly  all  of  the  wheat  belt 
in  the  American  and  Canadian  Northwest. 


OHAPTEK  XVI. 

PERMANENT    PASTURES. 

Permanent  pastures,  as  the  name  would  indicate,  are 
those  which  are  grown  continuously  on  the  same  land 
for  a  successive  number  of  years  of  considerable  dura- 
tion, or  for  all  time.  Sometimes  they  are  practically 
composed  of  but  a  single  grass;  in  other  instances  and 
more  frequently,  they  are  composed  of  a  variety  of  grass- 
es which  have  much  power  to  remain  in  the  land.  The 
dominant  idea,  underlying  their  growth,  is  to  crowd 
into  the  pasture,  as  many  of  the  enduring  grasses  that 
furnish  valuable  grazing,  as  can  be  grown  successfully 
together  for  a  term  of  years,  and  which  at  the  same  time, 
make  the  bulk  of  their  growth  at  different  periods  of  the 
growing  season.  But  since  some  of  these  are  slow  in 
attaining  a  maximum  of  growth,  taking  as  much  as  three 
or  four  years,  in  some  instances,  to  accomplish  this,  seed 
of  short-lived  varieties  is  frequently  sown  also  to  aid  in 
providing  a  full  supply  of  grazing,  while  the  slow  ma- 
turing varieties  are  attaining  a  maximum  of  develop- 
ment. When  the  pasture  is  once  secured,  it  is,  or  ought 
to  be,  the  aim  to  maintain  it  in  undiminishing  product- 
iveness by  keeping  it  free  from  weeds  and  by  stimu- 
lating growth  with  fertilizers. 

Permanent  pastures  composed  of  mixed  grasses  have 
not  been  extensively  grown  on  this  continent.  It  is, 


366  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

therefore,  scarcely  possible  to  speak  of  them  from  the 
standpoint  of  successful  experience.  The  attention  of 
agriculturists  has  not  been  centered  on  them  for  the 
reason  among  others,  that  land  has  been  abundant  and 
because  of  this,  the  necessity  has  not  been  greatly  felt 
for  growing  pastures  on  the  intensive  plan. 

That  permanent  pastures,  in  one  form  or  another, 
may  be  grown  and  should  be  grown  in  all  parts  of  the 
continent  is  certainly  true.  That  they  may  be  grown, 
in  some  localities  with  more  of  relative  advantage  than 
in  others,  is  also  true.  That  they  can  be  grown  on  this 
continent,  as  successfully  as  the  permanent  pastures  of 
Great  Britain  and  Holland,  is  not  true,  except  of  those 
sections  of  the  country  which  have  a  similar  climate.  It 
can  only  be  true  of  such  areas  as  have  a  climate  that 
is  moist,  and  in  which  rain  falls  in  ample  supply  dur- 
ing the  greater  portion  of  the  growing  season,  and  where 
the  growing  season  covers  a  large  portion  of  the  year. 
The  advice  to  use  formulas  for  laying  down  these  pas- 
tures, similar  to  those  used  in  laying  down  the  same 
in  Great  Britain,  where  the  conditions  are  not  the 
same,  has  not  been  good;  it  has  given  rise  to  more  or 
less  of  prejudice  against  the  idea  of  permanent  pas- 
tures, mixed  in  character. 

DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  PERMANENT  PASTURES. 

Permanent  pastures  in  America  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes.  These  are  pastures  composed  of  grass- 
es indigenous  in  character;  pastures  composed  of  one 
or  more  grasses  that  have  been  introduced;  and  pas- 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  367 

hires  composed  of  grasses,  indigenous  and  introduced. 
Which  of  these  should  be  grown  must  be  determined  by 
the  individual  needs  of  each  farm  and  the  conditions 
relating  to  growth  which  appertain  to  the  same. 

Indigenous  Permanent  Pastures. — These  are  pastures 
made  up  of  a  single  grass  or  of  a  variety  of  grasses,  that 
are  native  to  the  locality.  In  some  instances,  they  are 
substantially  composed  of  a  single  grass ;  as  for  instance 
blue  grass;  in  other  instances,  many  grasses  grow  in 
them;  such  are  the  pastures  of  the  open  range.  These 
pastures  are  established  by  the  hand  of  nature,  and  usu- 
ally in  areas  where  cultivation  is  not  practicable.  Under 
such  conditions,  it  is  questionable  whether  the  attempt 
should  be  made  to  change  the  character  of  these  pastures 
by  scattering  the  seed  of  other  grasses.  Of  course,  it  is 
different  where  cultivation  is  carried  on.  But  such  pas- 
tures may  be  maintained  in  undiminished  productive- 
ness, by  the  way  in  which  they  are  grazed,  and  by  sup- 
plementing careful  grazing  by  such  measures,  as  the  re- 
moval of  encroaching  shade  when  necessary  and  fertiliz- 
ing when  practicable. 

Introduced  Permanent  Pastures.— These  may  be 
composed  of  a  single  grass,  as  in  the  case  of  Russian 
brome  or  of  a  very  limited  number,  as  in  the  case 
of  Kentucky  blue  and  white  clover,  introduced  into 
areas  from  which  the  forest  has  been  cleared  away. 
They  may  also  be  composed  of  a  number  of  grasses 
suited  to  growth  in  the  district  in  which  they  are 
grown.  The  number  of  varieties  that  may  thus  be 
grown  will  vary  with  the*  conditions.  Usually,  how- 
ever, it  is  difficult,  under  any  conditions,  to  maintain 


368  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

imdiminislied  growth  in  each  of  a  number  of  grasses, 
comprising  more  than  half  a  dozen  varieties  for  a  long 
term  of  years. 

Indigenous  and  Introduced  Permanent  Pastures. — • 
These  are  composed  of  grasses,  native  to  the  country 
or  introduced,  and  in  various  combinations.  Such,  for 
instance,  is  a  permanent  pasture,  composed  of  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  indigenous  to  Kentucky  and  certain  of  the 
adjoining  states,  with  orchard  grass  and  white  clover 
added  to  the  same;  redtop,  indigenous  to  the  low-lying 
lands  of  Minnesota,  with  timothy  and  alsike  clover  add- 
ed; and  western  rye  grass,  indigenous  to  the  American 
and  Canadian  Northwest,  with  Russian  brome  added. 
In  growing  permanent  pastures,  it  should  be  the  aim 
to  utilize  valuable  indigenous  varieties  to  the  greatest 
extent  practicable,  since  there  can  be  no  doubt  about 
the  permanence  of  these. 

Duration  of  Permanent  Pastures. — Although  the 
name  would  imply,  that  these  pastures  shall  be  grown 
indefinitely,  the  idea  must  not  be  pressed  too  far.  Some 
of  them  are,  of  necessity,  permanent  as,  when  growing 
on  the  uncultivable  range,  or  in  arable  areas,  where 
cultivation  is  not  practicable,  because  of  stones  or  rocks 
in  the  land,  or  because  of  the  hilly  or  broken  character 
of  the  land.  Some  of  them  are,  practically,  permanent 
from  choice,  as  when  grown  on  land,  pre-eminently 
adapted  to  growing  these.  Such  are  some  of  the  pas- 
tures of  England,  more  than  a  hundred  years  laid  down. 
Again,  permanent  pastures  are  of  limited  duration. 
They  are  sown  on  ordinary  lands  and  are  composed  of 
a  limited  number  of  grasses,  which  in  time  so  decrease 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  369 

in  yield  as  to  render  it  desirable  to  supplant  them  with 
others,  for  which  the  ground  has  heen  so  prepared,  that 
they  are  likely  to  produce  more  abundantly  than  the 
former,  if  left  unbroken.  Under  arable  conditions, 
this  form  of  permanent  grazing  is  likely  to  be  much 
more  extensively  adopted  than  any  other.  The  per- 
manency of  such  pastures  will  be  largely  determined 
by  the  degree  of  production. 

GRASSES  ADAPTED  TO  VARIOUS  SOILS. 

In  laying  down  permanent  pastures,  due  regard  must 
be  had  not  only  to  climatic  conditions  but  also  to  those 
of  soil.  The  mistake  of  trying  to  grow  a  grass  on  soil 
uncongenial  to  it,  is  equally  great  with  that  of  trying 
to  grow  any  kind  of  grain,  under  similar  conditions. 
It  can  only  result  in  failure.  Adaptation  to  soil  con- 
ditions with  these  grasses,  grown  in  combination  will 
now  be  considered. 

For  Upland  Pastures. — On  ordinary  soils,  combina- 
tions of  grasses  that  will  give  the  best  results  will  vary 
considerably  with  latitude  and  longitude.  The  best 
single  pasture  for  such  a  use  in  the  northeastern  states 
and  the  eastern  provinces  of  Canada,  is  Kentucky  blue 
grass;  in  the  southeastern  and  southern  states,  Ber- 
muda grass;  in  the  region  which  has  eastern  Kansas 
for  its  center,  probably  orchard  grass ;  in  the  American 
and  Canadian  Northwest,  Russian  brome  grass  north- 
ward and  tall  oat  grass  southward;  and  west  of  the 
Cascades,  small  white  clover  or  even  the  medium  red 
which  has  much  permanency.  In  the  locality  first  des- 
ignated the  best  mixture  on  such  uplands  would  include 


370  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  timothy,  orchard  grass,  redtop. 
meadow  fescue,  and  tall  oat  grass,  useful  probably  in 
the  order  named.  Whether  Russian  brome  grass  would 
serve  a  good  purpose  in  such  pastures  has  not  yet  been 
determined  in  practice.  There  are  some  grounds  to 
fear  that  it  might  be  aggressive  overmuch.  The  clovers 
would  include  small  white  and,  in  some  instances,  the 
medium  red  and  alfalfa.  In  that  designated  secondly, 
the  principal  grasses  would  include  orchard  grass,  tall 
oat  grass,  redtop  and,  in  some  instances,  timothy  or 
blue  grass.  The  clovers  would  include  the  small  white. 
Japan,  buffalo  and  alfalfa,  according  to  the  locality. 
In  tha*  named  thirdly,  orchard  grass,  tall  oat  grass  and 
meadow  fescue,  with  white  clover  and  alfalfa  would 
probably  make  the  most  suitable  mixture.  In  that 
named  fourthly,  would  be  Russian  brome,  western  rye 
and  timothy  and,  in  some  instances,  redtop.  In  that 
named  fifthly,  would  be  Russian  brome,  tall  oat  and 
meadow  fescue.  And  in  that  named  lastly,  may  be 
included  almost  every  valuable  grass  and  clover  grown 
in  the  United  States. 

For  Slough  Lands. — The  best  single  grass  for  mak- 
.ing  a  permanent  pasture  in  low  lying  lands  in  the 
North,  is  probably  Russian  brome,  with  redtop  as  a 
close  second.  In  the  Soutfi,  redtop  is  deserving  of  first 
place.  The  grasses  that  will  figure  most  prominently 
in  mixtures  in  these  places,  include  Russian  brome, 
redtop,  fowl  meadow,  timothy,  Kentucky  blue  and  prob- 
ably perennial  rye  and  meadow  foxtail.  These  are 
named  in  the  order  of  all  round  relative  value,  but  the 
comparative  scarcity  of  the  seed  of  fowl  meadow  grass 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  371 

may  keep  it  from  being  given  a  prominent  place  in  such 
mixtures.  In  the  South,  the  best  yielding  grasses  in 
such  a  mixture  will  include  redtop  and  white  clover 
and  probably  perennial  rye  but  in  many  parts  of  the 
South,  nearly  all  the  grasses  named  may  be  used  in 
the  mixture.  West  of  the  Cascades  all  may  be  in- 
cluded. 

For  Sandy  Lands. — To  obtain  permanent  grasses, 
that  are  suitable  for  sandy  lands,  furnishes  a  problem 
that  is  not  easily  solved.  The  three  best  grasses  for 
the  purpose  are  Eussian  brome,  Western  rye  and  Ber- 
muda grasses ;  the  clovers  will  include  the  Japan  and 
buffalo.  For  the  South,  there  is  no  other  clover  that  will 
prove  satisfactory  on  light  sandy  land,  but  in  wet  sea- 
sons the  small  white  may  grow  well ;  alfalfa  may  also  be 
sometimes  used.  For  the  North  and  West,  the  best  of 
the  three  grasses  named,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of 
utility  and  permanence,  is  Russian  brome.  The  dis- 
tribution of  Western  rye  has  not  been  so  well  worked 
out  as  that  of  Russian  brome,  hence  its  value  for  south- 
ern conditions  is  not  yet  well  understood.  For  such  soils 
in  the  South,  Bermuda  grass  is  without  a  peer.  Its 
adaptation  for  these  is  pre-eminent. 

For  Dry  Areas. — The  problem  of  furnishing  suita- 
ble permanent  grasses  for  dry  areas  is  even  more  diffi- 
cult than  that  of  furnishing  the  same  for  sandy  soils 
where  the  conditions  may  not  be  so  dry.  Of  the  really 
valuable  grasses  grown  under  cultivation,  Russian 
brome  is  probably  the  best  for  the  North  and  West  and 
Bermuda  for  the  South.  On  dry  hard  clay  soils,  Cana- 
dian blue  grass  grows  with  much  tenacity.  Southward, 


372  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

velvet  grass  grows  under  dry  conditions  and  the  same 
is  true  of  Texas  blue  grass.  Tall  oat  grass  has  also 
served  a  good  purpose  in  permanent  pastures  in  dry 
areas  in  the  mountain  bench  lands.  For  arid  plains, 
the  Australian  saltbush  has  served  a  good  purpose  and 
it  may  be  that  blue  grama  will  be  helpful  on  dry  range 
lands.  The  best  clovers  for  dry  areas  are  the  Japan 
and  the  buffalo,  but  under  some  conditions,  alfalfa  could 
be  grown  in  the  mixture. 

For  Wet  Soils. — For  soils  that  are  so  wet  that  they 
cannot  be  tilled  at  certain  portions  of  the  year,  Rus- 
sian brome,  redtop  and  fowl  meadow  are  probably  the 
three  best  grasses  and  next  to  these  Kentucky  blue. 
There  is  perhaps  no  good  pasture  grass,  that  will  stand 
conditions  of  prolonging  wetness  in  the  soil  better  than 
Russian  brome ;  redtop  and  fowl  meadow  are  also  good 
but,  of  course,  neither  will  endure  wet  beyond  a  certain 
degree.  In  hot  weather,  watery  saturation  is  more  hurt- 
ful than  in  cool  weather.  On  lands  that  are  springy  in 
character,  blue  grass  makes  good  pasture,  even  when 
the  soil  is  thrown  up  in  hummocks.  For  providing  per- 
manent pastures  under  irrigation,  Russian  brome,  Ken- 
tucky blue,  red  top,  timothy,  alsike  clover  and  alfalfa 
have  high  adaptation. 

For  Growing  in  Shade. — Orchard  grass  has  long  been 
assigned  the  premier  place  for  being  grown  in  the  shade 
among  the  cultivated  grasses  of  America.  Russian 
brome,  however,  has  considerable  adaptation  for  such 
situations;  whether  this  adaptation  will  equal  that  of 
orchard  grass  has  not  been  determined  in  America. 
Tall  oat  grass  will  also  grow  fairly  well  in  such  situa- 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  373 

tions  and  the  same  is  true  of  Kentucky  blue.  In  the 
IVoitl',  a  combination  of  orchard  grass,  Russian  brome 
and  Kentucky  blue  would  answer  well  in  groves  and 
parks;  and  for  the  South,  a  combination  of  orchard, 
tall  oat  and  probably  perennial  rye. 

For  Growing  in  Marshes. — In  marshes  where  water 
stands  much  of  the  year,  it  is  doubtful  if  any  pasture 
grasses  can  be  introduced  that  will  give  a  better  return 
than  those  which  nature  may  have  planted  there.  Wire 
grass  (Car ex  vulpinoidea)  is  by  far  the  most  valuable 
grass  for  such  situations  and  it  is  not  a  pasture  grass. 
(See  p.  295.)  Blue  joint  (Calamagrostis  canadensis) 
will  grow  in  situations  that  would  be  too  wet  for  red- 
top  and  makes  good  hay  but  the  results  from  grazing  it 
on  lands  so  wet  as  those  congenial  to  its  growth,  would 
probably  prove  hurtful  to  the  future  growth  of  the 


GEASSES  FOR  THE   STATES  AND  PROVINCES. 

The  grasses  best  suited  for  permanent  pastures, 
grown  alone  or  in  various  combinations,  as  adapted  to 
groups  of  states  within  the  union  or  to  groups  of  prov- 
inces in  Canada  will  now  be  considered.  The  group- 
ing of  these  will  be  the  same,  as  in  Chapter  XV.  which 
discusses  Temporary  Pastures. 

For  the  Northeastern  States. — For  the  states  and 
provinces  of  this  group  see  p.  342.  The  best  perma- 
nent pasture  in  all  these  states,  spontaneous  in  char- 
acter, is  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  small  white  clover. 
These  grasses,  especially  where  they  have  been  once 
grown,  will  soon  take  possession  of  grounds  that  have 


374  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

been  cultivated,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  or  nearly  all 
other  grasses  and  clovers,  though  they  should  not  be 
sown  again.  This  follows  on  the  condition  that  young 
trees  are  not  allowed  to  crowd  them  or  overshadow  them 
by  their  shade;  such  a  result  will  not  follow,  where 
live  stock  graze  through  the  season.  These  two  grasses 
would  then  take  possession  of  the  soil  in  two  or  three 
years  to  the  exclusion  of  the  growth  of  trees;  they  will 
likewise  take  possession  of  land  from  which  timber  has 
been  removed,  when  thus  given  a  chance  to  grow.  But 
the  transformation  in  both  instances  will  be  more  rapid, 
if  seed  is  scattered  in  the  early  autumn  or  early  spring, 
even  though  it  should  not  be  harrowed.  For  this  pur- 
pose, it  should  seldom  be  necessary  to  sow  more  than 
7  pounds  of  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  3  pounds  of 
white  clover  per  acre.  The  pastures,  on  broken  and 
rugged  land  in  the  states  and  provinces  of  this  group, 
will  usually  be  composed  of  these  two  grasses.  For 
average  soils  in  this  group,  if  a  limited  number  of  grass- 
es is  chosen  with  a  view  to  provide  mixed  pastures  for 
a  more  or  less  definite  term  of  years,  the  following 
would  probably  serve  the  purpose  best: 

Lbs.  Per  Acre. 

Timothy  4 

Orchard    4 

Redtop 3 

Russian  brome 4 

Medium  red r 3 

Mammoth 2 

Total  20 

If  Russian  brome  is  omitted,  as  its  behavior  in  mixed 
pastures  under  American  cultivation  is  not  yet  well  un- 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  375 

derStood,  add  one  pound  each,  in  lieu  thereof,  to  the 
timothy  and  red  top  and  two  pounds  to  the  orchard 
grass.  The  red  clovers  are  sown  in  these  as  in  all  the 
mixtures  in  which  they  are  included  to  aid  in  furnishing 
pasture  the  year  following  that  in  which  the  grasses  are 
sown,  with  the  expectation  that  they  will  soon  entirely 
disappear.  On  certain  soils,  where  alfalfa  grows  read- 
ily it  may  he  sown  in  lieu  of  mammoth  clover,  using 
the  same  amount  of  seed  per  acre.  Where  the  lands 
are  naturally  dry,  it  may  be  well  to  substitute  meadow 
fescue  for  redtop,  using  the  amount  of  seed  named 
as  suitable  for  redtop.  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  white 
clover  would  be  likely  to  come  into  the  mixed  pastures, 
at  all  permanent  in  character,  in  two  or  three  years, 
in  all  or  nearly  all  the  states  and  provinces  in  the  group 
now  being  considered.  Before  many  years,  they  would 
probably  be  the  leading  factors  in  the  same,  hence  it 
is  not  usually  necessary  to  sow  them.  The  same  is  also 
true  of  them  in  some  of  the  other  groups  of  states. 
Where  it  is  not,  however,  it  may  be  advisable  in  some 
instances  to  add  a  few  pounds  of  blue  grass  seed  and 
a  little  white  clover  seed  to  the  formulas  given. 

For  low  lying  lands,  naturally  moist,  but  on  which 
water  does  not  lie  to  any  appreciable  extent,  the  follow- 
ing grasses  would  answer  for  mixed  pastures  of  con- 
siderable duration,  but  not  laid  down  for  an  indefinite 

period : 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 

Timothy  6 

Redtop 6 

Russian  brome 5 

Alsike  clover 3 

Total   .  ..20 


376  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

When  mixed  pastures  are  to  be  laid  down  for  a  long 
term  of  years,  in  these  states  and  provinces,  good,  well- 
prepared  and  naturally  moist  land  should  be  chosen. 
The  following  varieties  may  be  used  in  the  mixture  and 
all  of  them,  it  is  thought,  with  some  profit : 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 

Timothy 3 

Orchard   3 

Redtop  3 

Meadow  fescue 3 

Tall  oat  2 

Meadow  foxtail  2 

Fowl  meadow 2 

Medium  red  clover 2 

Mammoth  clover 2 

Alsike  clover 2 

Total 24 

Those  who  do  not  care  to  hazard  meadow  foxtail  and 
fowl  meadow,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  getting  good 
seed,  could  probably  with  certainty  of  success,  sow  4- 
pounds  per  acre  of  Russian  brome  instead.  This  grass 
was  not  included  in  the  formula  for  the  reason,  only 
that  experience  in  growing  it  in  such  mixtures  in  Amer- 
ica, is  as  yet  practically  wanting. 

On  sandy  lands  in  these  states  and  provinces  nothing 
better  probably  can  be  sown  for  permanent  pastures 
than  Russian  brome,  using  15  pounds  of  seed  per  acre, 
and  for  stiff  hard  clays  nothing  would  seem  to  serve  the 
purpose  better  than  Canadian  blue  grass  (Poa  com- 
pressa),  sowing  12  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  along  with 
3  or  4  pounds  of  medium  red  clover. 

For  the  Southeastern  States. — For  the  states  includ- 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  377 

ed  in  this  group,  see  p.  344.  The  hest  permanent  pas- 
ture produced  by  a  single  grass  in  this  group  of  states 
will  not  be  the  same  in  all  of  these.  In  the  uplands 
of  the  Alleghanies,  it  will  be  Kentucky  blue  grass  or 
meadow  fescue.  In  West  Virginia,  a  large  part  of 
Kentucky  and  a  part  of  Tennessee,  it  will  be  Kentucky 
blue  grass.  In  all  or  nearly  all,  the  territory  in 
areas  designated,  it  will  be  Bermuda  grass.  But  in 
Eastern  Texas  and  also  some  other  localities,  it  may 
be  Texas  blue  grass.  The  behavior  of  Texas  blue  grass 
and  Bermuda  grass,  growing  together,  has  not  apparent- 
ly been  sufficiently  tested  to  justify  drawing  conclu- 
sions, as  to  the  outcome;  if  these  two  would  grow  to- 
gether, they  would  furnish  permanent  pasture,  winter 
and  summer. 

For  permanent  pastures  of  limited  duration  on  aver- 
age soils  in  these  states,  the  following  grasses  will  an- 
swer for  much  of  the  area,  but  not  equally  well  for  all 

of  it: 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 

Orchard  grass  -5 

Redtop   5 

Meadow  fescue  5 

Tall 'oat  grass 5 

White  clover  2 

Japan  clover 2 

Total  24 

Under  some  conditions,  it  may  not  be  necessary  to 
sow  the  clovers  named,  as  the  seed  may  be  in  the  soil 
already;  but  in  such  instances  it  would  seem  advisable 
to  sow  at  least  G  pounds  of  each  of  the  grasses  named ; 
2  pounds  per  acre  of  sheep's  fescue  may  also  improve 


378  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

the  grazing.  This  mixture  will  not  likely  provide  suf- 
ficient pasture  on  poor  soil  to  justify  sowing  it  on  the 
same.  Bermuda  grass  will  serve  the  purpose  better. 

On  bottom  lands  and  alluvial  soils,  such  as  are  found 
in  river  basins,  the  same  formula  will  answer  but  it 
may  prove  helpful  to  add  to  it  2  pounds  each  per  acre 
of  perennial  rye  grass  and  meadow  foxtail. 

For  the  Canadian  Northwest. — For  the  provinces  in- 
cluded in  this  group,  see  p.  346.  The  best  single  per- 
manent pasture  grass  for  this  entire  area  is  Russian 
brome.  How  long  it  may  be  grown  on  the  same  land 
without  decrease  in  the  yield,  has  not  yet  been  proved 
but  when  renewed  by  suitable  harrowing  and  ploughing 
every  few  years  (see  p.  188)  it  would  last  for  many 
years. 

The  best  mixture  of  grasses  for  permanent  pastures  at 
the  present  time  is  the  following: 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 

Russian  brome 6 

Western  rye 6 

Timothy   6 

Total 18 

In  dry  areas,  it  would  probab]y  be  preferable  to  sow 
only  Russian  brome  as  timothy  will  not  do  well  in 
these;  where  Russian  brome  is  sown  alone,  it  may  be 
renewed,  as  indicated  above  so  as  to  make  it  perma- 
nent. In  some  of  the  moister  sections  of  the  group 
of  provinces,  it  may  be  helpful  to  add  a  few  pounds 
cf  redtop  to  the  above  formula  and  in  others  a  few 
pounds  of  Kentucky  blue  grass ;  but  it  would  not  avail 
to  sow  either,  where  the  rainfall  is  light  nor  is  it  wise 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  379 

under  such  conditions  to  sow  large  quantities  of  seed, 
as  the  moisture  is  not  enough  to  sustain  a  dense  sward. 
In  the  irrigated  districts  toward  the  mountains,  Rus- 
sian brome  grass,  alone  or  with  alsike  and  white  clover, 
would  make  excellent  permanent  pasture. 

For  the  Upper  Mississippi  Basin.  —  For  the  states  in 
this  group,  see  p.  347.  In  eastern  Minnesota,  all  of 
Wisconsin,  much  of  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Iowa,  the 
best  permanent  pasture  grass  is  Kentucky  blue  ;  in  east- 
ern North  and  South  Dakota  and  in  a  part  of  Nebraska, 
Russian  brome,  and  in  Kansas  and  part  of  Missouri, 
orchard  grass  and  in  some  localities  Russian  brome. 
In  northeastern  Minnesota  ancT  also  in  northern  Wiscon- 
sin, Kentucky  blue  grass  and  white  clover  make  excel- 
lent permanent  pasture  and  in  the  same  medium  red 
clover  will  endure  for  a  term  of  years. 

In  the  blue  grass  region  of  the  area  named  north  of 
parallel  40  degrees,  the  following  combination  of  grasses 
may  be  expected  to  give  good  results: 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 
Timothy    .................................   4 

Redtop    ..................................   6 

Russian  brome  ...........................  4 

Orchard  grass   ...........................  2 

Meadow  fescue  ...........................  2 

Tall  oat  grass  ............................  2 

Medium  red  clover  ........................  2 

Mammoth  clover  .........................  2 


Total 


South  of  parallel  40  and  also  in  the  blue  grass  re- 
gion, the  above  formula  should  be  changed  to  that  given 

below 

Grasses  —  25. 


*80      GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 

Timothy  3 

Redtop    3 

Meadow  fescue   4 

Orchard  grass  6 

Russian  brome 4 

Tall  oat  grass 2 

Medium  red  clover 3 

Total 25 

Where  blue  grass  is  not  already  plentiful  in  the  soil, 
it  would  be  advisable  to  add  5  pounds  of  good  pure 
seed  per  acre  to  each  of  the  above  formulas.  In  some 
instances,  it  may  also  be  advisable  to  add  one  pound  of 
small  white  clover  per  aere. 

For  low  humus  soils  north  of  parallel  40,  the  follow- 
ing mixture  should  prove  satisfactory : 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 

Timothy 6 

Redtop   6 

Russian  brome 6 

Orchard  grass   2 

Meadow  fescue  2 

Alsike  clover  3 

Total  25 

For  the  same  class  of  soils  south  of  parallel  40,  the 

following  formula  is  submitted: 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 

Timothy   3 

Redtop   G 

Orchard  grass   0 

Meadow  fescue  3 

Russian  brome 4 

Tall  oat  grass 2 

Alsike  clover  2 

Total   .  ,.26 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  381 

For  average  soils  in  eastern  Kansas  and  the  territory 
adjacent,  the  following  formula  is  submitted  as  being 
at  least  approximately  suitable: 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 

Redtop   4 

Orchard  grass   6 

Meadow  fescue 4 

Russian  brome 3 

Tall  oat  grass 3 

Medium  red 2 

Alfalfa   3 

Total  ' 25 

For  the  eastern  Dakotas,  the  mixture  for  permanent 
pastures  would  be  the  same  as  for  the  Canadian  North- 
west, (See  p.  378.) 

For  the  Semi-Arid  Belt. — For  the  states  included  in 
this  group,  see  p.  348.  In  that  portion  of  these  states 
which  cannot  successfully  be  cultivated,  it  is  problem- 
atical if  the  range  grasses,  which  now  occupy  the  soil, 
can  be  supplemented  by  others  that  will  serve  the  pur- 
pose better.  But  in  such  portions  as  may  be  culti- 
vated, not  including  the  foot-hills,  the  following  mix- 
ture should  furnish  such  pastures  from  the  northern 
border  of  Oklahoma  to  the  Canadian  boundary  and 
east  of  the  Rocky  mountains : 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 

Russian  brome 10 

Western  rye 10 

Total  20 

On  the  bench  lands  of  the  foot-hills,  the  mixture 
would  include  the  grasses  now  submitted: 


$82  GRASSES  AND.  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 

Timothy  4 

Russian  brome 6 

Western  rye 4 

Alfalfa    4 

Total 18 

In  the  winter  wheat  growing  area  west  of  the  Cas- 
cades, which  has  Moscow,  Idaho,  for  its  center,  the  fol- 
lowing, it  is  thought,  are  the  best  grasses  to  grow  to- 
gether : 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 

Russian  brome 7 

Meadow  fescue 5 

Tall  oat 5 

Alfalfa    3 

Total  20 

It  is  questionable  if  these  grasses  will  stand  grazing 
indefinitely  without  renewal  where  the  precipitation  is 
so  light  as  in  the  area  now  being  considered. 

For  the  Irrigated  Western  Valleys. — In  the  absence 
of  experience,  it  would  not  be  possible  to  state  which 
grass  or  combination  of  grasses  would  prove  most  sat- 
isfactory in  providing  .permanent  grazing  on  the  irri- 
gated lands  of  mountain  states.  The  most  productive 
single  plant  is  alfalfa,  but  it  can  be  grazed  safely  by 
horses,  mules  and  swine,  when  grown  alone.  A  limited 
amount,  however,  can  be  grown  with  other  grasses, 
without  incurring  much  hazard  to  cattle  and  sheep,  also 
while  being  grazed.  The  various  clovers  assume  more 
of  permanency  in  their  habit  of  growth  in  such  situ- 
ations; hence  it' would  be  possible  to  grow  grazing  for  a 
number  of  years  from  medium  red  clover  but  the  same 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  383 

objection,  though  in  a  less  'degree,  would  apply  to  the 
grazing  of  these  alone,  that  applies  to  the  grazing  of 
alfalfa.  'No  single  grass  probably  would  furnish  as 
much  grazing  especially  in  the  more  northerly  of  these 
valleys,  as  Russian  brome  grown  under  irrigation,  but 
timothy  and  indeed  all  the  leading  grasses  should  suc- 
ceed well. 

The  following  mixture  should  give  good  results: 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 

Timothy  6 

Russian  brome 5 

Meadow  fescue  5 

Tall  oat  3 

Alsike  clover  3 

Alfalfa    2 

Total   24 

A  good  permanent  pasture  could  also  be  grown  from 

the  following  simple  formula : 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 

Timothy  12 

Alsike  clover   3 

Alfalfa    3 

Small  white   2 

Total   20 

For  Areas  West  of  Cascades. — For  the  area  comprised 
in  this  region,  see  p.  351.  Several  grasses,  possessed 
of  much  permanence,  may  be  grown  alone  for  grazing 
on  these  Pacific  slopes  and  in  the  tide  lands  beside  the 
sea.  These  include  timothy,  orchard  grass  and  alsike 
clover;  timothy  and  alsike  clover  may  be  grown  al- 
most indefinitely  on  river  bottoms  and  tide  lands,  but 
medium  red  clover  would  distribute  the  grazing  more 


384  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

evenly.     The   formula   for   sowing   would   be   at   least 

approximately  : 

I.bs.  per  Acre. 
Timothy  ................  .  ................  10 

Medium  red  ..............................  5 

Alsike  ...................................  3 

Total  ................................  18 

To  provide  grazing  of  the  most  permanent  character 
rhe  following  mixture  is  submitted: 

Lbs.  per  Acre. 
Timothy   .................................   6 

Orchard   .................................  3 

Meadow  fescue  ...........................  3 

Tall  oat  .................................  2 

Meadow  foxtail  ..........................  2 

Sheep's  fescue  ...........................  2 

Medium  red  ..............................  3 

Alsike  ...................................  3 


Total 


Small  white  clover  may  be  expected  to  come  into 
any  permanent  pasture  in  this  region,  though  not  sown, 
and  in  some  sections  also  Kentucky  blue  grass. 

MISCELLANEOUS  DISCUSSIONS  ON  PERMANENT  PASTURES. 

Because  of  the  permanency  of  the  pastures,  that  are 
now  being  considered,  it  is  highly  important  that  when 
these  are  laid  down,  the  work  shall  be  done  in  a  way, 
that  will  most  effectively  secure  the  object  sought. 
Questions  which  appertain  to  the  laying  down  of  these 
pastures  and  to  their  proper  maintenance  will  now  be 
discussed. 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  385 

Solving  Permanent  Pastures. — Much  that  has  been 
said  in  Chapter  XV.,  with  reference  to  the  sowing  of 
temporary  pastures,  will  also  apply  to  the  growing  of 
permanent  pastures.  See  p.  353.  Since  the  latter,  how- 
ever, are  to  continue  for  years  it  is  of  far  more  im- 
portance relatively,  that  a  good  stand  of  the  plants 
shall  be  secured.  To  insure  the  same,  every  care  should 
be  taken  in  the  preparation  of  the  land,  in  the  sowing 
of  the  seed  and  in  the  care  of  the  pastures,  until  well 
established. 

Grasses  for  permanent  pastures  should  be  sown  on 
land  that  is  at  least  reasonably  clean,  in  a  good  condi- 
tion of  tilth  and  well  supplied  with  plant  food.  To 
secure  the  requisite  cleanness,  they  should  either  come 
after  the  bare  fallow  or  after  a  cultivated  crop  to  which 
clean  cultivation  has  been  given.  When  sown  in  the 
autumn,  they  should,  as  a  rule,  be  sown  on  summer 
fallowed  land.  When  the  work  of  preparation  has 
been  well  done,  the  land  will,  unless  in  exceptional  in- 
stances, be  in  an  excellent  condition  of  preparation  for 
receiving  the  seed.  If  a  crop  of  clover  is  ploughed  un- 
der in  the  spring  and  the  land  subsequently  summer 
fallowed  by  working  it  only  on  the  top,  the  grass  plants 
sown  subsequently  in  the  autumn  should  start  with 
much  vigor. 

When  sown  in  the  spring,  it  may  also  in  some  in- 
stances be  wise  to  summer  fallow  the  land  the  pre- 
vious season,  and  to  bury  at  least  one  crop,  as  for  in- 
stance peas,  to  supply  the  land  with  the  necessary  hu- 
mus and  plant  food.  In  other  instances,  it  will  an- 
swer to  sow  the  seed  after  one  crop  of  corn  well  cared 


386  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

for  has  been  grown  on  the  land  or,  what  would  proba- 
bly be  better,  after  two  crops  have  been  grown  in  suc- 
cession on  the  same.  If  these  pastures  are  not  laid 
down  on  clean  land,  their  subsequent  value  will  be  great- 
ly lessened  and  the  labor  of  caring  for  them  will  be 
greatly  increased.  There  may  also  be  instances  when 
these  grasses  may  be  made  to  follow  a  crop  of  Canada 
field  peas  or  of  cow  peas,  the  latter  having  been  culti- 
vated while  growing.  One  objection  to  sowing  the 
crop  on  corn  land  is  found  in  the  corn  roots  which  in- 
terfere somewhat  with  the  proper  covering  of  the  seed. 
It  is  a  great  mistake  to  sow  grasses  for  permanent 
pastures  on  land  low  in  fertility.  They  will  not  start 
vigorously  on  such  land  and  no  subsequent  fertilizing 
will  secure  as  good  growth  in  the  plants  as  -if  they  had 
been  given  a  good  start  at  the  first.  If  farm  yard  ma- 
nure is  used  as  a  fertilizer,  it  should  be  applied  a  year 
in  advance,  unless  it  is  known  to  possess  but  few  weed 
seeds.  Fertility,  applied  by  ploughing  in^a  nitrogen 
gathering  crop  is  usually  very  effective  in  promoting 
growth  in  the  young  grasses,  since  these  in  addition 
to  supplying  plant  food  act  favorably  on  the  mechan- 
ical and  chemical  condition  of  the  land,  but  where  it 
is  necessary  commercial  fertilizers  may  be  applied. 
Those  of  course  should  be  used  such  as  the  weeds  of 
the  land  require  in  each  particular  locality  and  they 
ought  to  be  incorporated  with  the  soil  near  the  surface 
a  short  time  before  the  seed  is  sown  or  applied  when  it 
is  sown  or  subsequently.  As  a  rule,  the  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  are  applied  previous  to  or  at  the  time  of 
sowing  the  seed,  and  the  nitrogen  a  little  later ;  but  they 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  387 

should  be  used  in  quantities  sufficient  to  secure  good 
growth  in  the  young  grass  plants. 

The  soil  should  be  well  and  deeply  stirred.  In  some 
instances,  subsoiling  will  be  helpful  and  in  others  it 
is  not  necessary.  It  should  be  the  aim  to  have  some 
time  elapse  between  the  last  ploughing  given  to  the  land 
and  the  sowing  of  the  seed  and  to  stir  frequently  in 
the  interval  with  harrow  or  cultivator  to  secure  a  clean 
seed  bed.  After  Canada  field  peas,  cow  peas  or  corn, 
potatoes  or  other  root  crops  it  is  usually  preferable  to 
use  such  implements  in  preparing  the  land  as  stir  the 
soil  on  and  below  the  surface  but  which  do  not  over- 
turn it;  it  is  greatly  important  to  have  the  seed  bed, 
fine,  firm  and  moist  when  the  seed  is  sown. 

Usually,  autumn  sowing  will  be  preferable;  this  is 
true  of  the  South  and,  in  many  instances,  of  the  North, 
though  not  of  all.  In  the  South,  they  should  be  sown 
as  soon  as  the  rains  of  fall  come ;  in  the  North,  if  sown 
in  the  autumn,  it  should,  if  possible,  be  not  later  than 
August  that  the  plants  may  have  time  to  make  a  good 
growth  before  winter.  Advantage  should  be  taken  of 
the  moisture  brought  to  the  soil  by  rain,  when  sowing 
the  seed.  When  sown  in  the  spring,  in  the  North,  the 
work  should  be  done  as  early  as  the  ground  is  suitable 
for  being  worked.  In  the  semi-arid  country,  the  seed 
should  be  sown  in  the  early  spring  or  preferably  in  the 
late  autumn. 

The  seed  may  be  sown  by  hand,  after  all  the  kinds 
selected  have  first  been  mixed;  but  when  this  is  sown 
the  work  should  be  done  by  an  expert  as  it  is  very 
necessary  that  the  seed  should  be  evenly  distributed. 


388  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

When  sown  by  hand,  the  plan  of  sowing  half  the  seed 
when  first  going  over  the  land  and  then  crossing  it 
when  sowing  the  other  half  is  quite  certain  to  secure 
a  more  even  distribution  of  seeds  that  differ  in  weight 
than  by  sowing  them  all  at  one  cast.  When  sown  with 
a  hand  seeder,  now  in  use,  which  is  wheeled  over  the 
ground,  a  more  even  distribution  of  the  seed  will  be 
secured.  It  may  be  necessary,  in  some  instances,  to  s^w 
the  coarser  seeds  together  and  then  to  go  over  the  land 
a  second  time  sowing  those  that  are  finer.  This  may 
be  necessary  because  the  small  and  large  seeds  are  not 
likely  to  feed  out  evenly,  when  sown  all  at  once;  the 
opportunity  is  thus  also  furnished  for  running  the  har- 
row over  the  land  after  the  first  distribution  of  seed 
has  been  made  in  order  to  cover  the  seeds  more  deeply. 
In  all  or  nearly  all  instances,  some  covering  with  the 
harrow  is  necessary ;  whether  the  roller-  should  follow 
will  depend  upon  soil  and  climatic  conditions.  There 
may  be  instances  in  which  the  seeds  may  be  sown  with 
the  grain  drill  as  when  only  one  or  two  varieties  are 
sown  which  require  a  fairly  deep  covering. 

Usually  these  grasses  are  not  sown  with  a  nurse  crop. 
Whether  a  crop  shall  be  obtained  from  the  ground, 
the  season  that  grasses  are  sown,  is  not  greatly  im- 
portant relatively ;  the  great  matter  is  to  secure  a  good, 
vigorous  and  uniform  stand  of  the  grasses.  When 
not  sown  with  a  nurse  crop,  the  mower  should  be  run 
over  the  ground  as  often  as  necessary  to  prevent  the 
weeds  and  stronger  plants  from  producing  undue  shade. 
Close  attention  should  be  given  to  the  matter  and  it 
should  be  done  frequently  enough  to  make  it  unnec- 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  389 

ccssary  to  remove  any  of  the  weeds  or  grass  so  cut  from 
the  land.  If  a  nurse  crop  is  sown  and  in  some  in- 
stances, it  may  be  an  advantage  to  have  it  very  thinly 
sown  and  always  cut  for  hay.  Such  a  crop  may  be 
helpful  in  preserving  lands  from  drifting  or  in  pro- 
tecting the  fall  sown  grasses  in  the  winter. 

Grazing  Permanent  Pastures. — Uniformity  in  the 
method  of  grazing  permanent  pastures  and  in  the  man- 
agement of  the  same  cannot  be  practiced.  Where  the 
conditions  are  not  the  same,  the  general  treatment  of 
pastures  will  not  be  the  same.  Wherever  they  are, 
the  aim  should  be  to  keep  them  clean  and  productive  and 
so  to  manage  them  that  the  survival  of  all  the  plants 
sown  shall  be  encouraged. 

Usually,  it  is  not  considered  good  practice  to  graze 
permanent  pastures  the  same  year  that  they  are  sown 
but  to  this  there  may  be  some  exceptions,  as  on  soils 
lacking  in  firmness  and  where  the  rainfall  is  not  plenti- 
ful. Close  grazing,  especially  the  first  season,  has  the 
effect  of  hindering  development  in  root  growth  the 
vigor  of  which  is  encouraged  by  growth  in  the  top. 
The  plan  of  mowing  and  leaving  what  is  cut  to  mulch 
the  soil  is  much  better.  When  the  seed  is  sown  in 
the  spring,  the  pasture  should  be  ready  for  grazing  the 
next  season,  but  when  it  is  sown  in  the  fall  it  should 
furnish  moderate  grazing  the  following  year;  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  graze  it  off  too  early  in  the 
spring.  The  second  year  these  pastures  should  not  be 
cut  for  hay  as  the  development  of  the  crop  would  tend 
to  smother  the  weaker  grasses. 

The  closeness  of  the  grazing,  that  may  be  allowed 


390  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

without  injuring  the  grass,  is  much  influenced  by  soil 
and  climate.  The  more  moist  the  climate  and  the  more 
temperate,  the  closer  may  he  the  grazing.  Close  graz- 
ing where  the  summer  heat  is  prolonged  hinders  growth 
through  the  escape  of  moisture ;  and  in  the  autumn  in 
stern  climates,  it  weakens  the  vitality  of  the  plants 
by  exposing  them  too  much  in  the  winter.  On  the 
other  hand,  insufficient  grazing  would  result  in  por- 
tions of  the  pasture  remaining  uneaten,  until  the  grasses 
had  produced  stems  and  formed  heads,  after  which 
they  are  not  relished.  When  this  does  happen,  the 
mower  should  be  used  as  soon  as  the  heads  appear  and, 
where  these  portions  of  the  pasture  are  at  all  consid- 
erable, should  be  made  into  hay.  Where  the  patches 
are  small,  if  they  can  be  cut  from  time  to  time  the 
stock  will  likely  consume  much  of  it  in  the  wilted  form. 
In  dry  areas  where  the  soils  are  loose,  close  grazing 
should  be  avoided  and  at  no  time  should  permanent 
pastures  be  grazed  when  so  wet  that  the  danger  of 
poaching  is  present.  The  close  grazing  of  Bermuda 
grass  .tends  to  keep  out  weeds  which  might  overshadow 
the  grass  and  is,  so  far,  to  be  commended  but  not  be- 
fore the  pasture  hasi>ecome  well  established. 

On  the  whole  the  practice  of  grazing  different  classes 
of  animals  simultaneously  on  the  same  pastures,  is  to 
be  commended,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  in- 
fluence which"  it  exerts  on  the  pastures.  The  tastes  of 
these  are  different ;  hence,  the  pastures  are  likely  to 
be  more  uniformly  eaten.  Where  for  good  reasons 
which  may  exist,  it  is  not  prudent  to  graze  them,  thus, 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  391 

the  plan  of  grazing  them  in  succession  will  also  tend 
to  secure  more  of  uniformity  in  the  grazing. 

While  the  practice  of  mulching  permanent  pastures 
with  dressings  of  farm  yard  manure  is  not  a  good  one, 
unless  the  manure  is  so  fermented  that  the  weed  seeds 
in  it  are,  in  the  main,  destroyed,  that  of  feeding  soil- 
ing food  on  these  pastures  is  beneficial  where  the  work 
is  judiciously  done.  The  food  thus  fed  should  be 
strewn  on  fresh  ground  every  time  that  it  is  fed  until 
the  pasture  is  gone  over  with  a  view  to  secure  an  even 
distribution  in  the  droppings  of  the  animals. 

Every  care  should  be  exercised  to  keep  weeds  out  of 
permanent  pastures.  This  is  best  prevented  by  prop- 
erly cleaning  the  soil  before  laying  them  down.  Some 
forms  of  noxious  weed  life  will  gradually  disappear 
as  the  grass  plants  take  possession  of  the  soil.  This 
is  true  of  nearly  all  kinds  of  annuals  and  of  many  bi- 
ennials. It  is  different  with  many  perennials  especially 
those  which  multiply  chiefly  from  underground  stems; 
among  the  most  persistent  growers  in  these  pastures  are 
the  oxeye  daisy  (Leucanthemum  vulgare),  the  Canadian 
ihistle  (Cirsium  arvense)  and  iron  weed  (Vernonia  no- 
veboracensis).  On  stiff  clays  Canada  thistles  will  ulti- 
mately disappear  where  the  grazing  is  close  and  con- 
tinued for  successive  years,  but  on  the  other  soils  they 
will  rather  increase;  oxeye  daisies  are  also  likely  to 
increase.  The  same  is  true  of  ironweed  and  some  other 
weeds  unless  cut  by  the  mower,  at  least  once  a  year, 
and  grazed  closely  with  sheep  early  in  the  season.  If 
annuals  and  biennials  are  not  allowed  to  blossom  in 
such  pastures,  they  will  soon  disappear.  When  peren- 


392  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

nials  are  not  too  plentiful,  they  may  be  removed  by 
cutting  them  with  the  spud  when  practicable  below  th«- 
surface  of  the  ground,  with  sufficient  frequency,  to  ac- 
complish the  end  sought  in  a  single  season.  Where  they 
are  too  numerous  to  be  thus  dealt  with,  there  is  no 
other  way  but  to  tolerate  their  presence  until  the  pas 
ture  is  broken;  but  where  a  proper  use  is  made  of  the 
mower,  the  scythe  and  the  spud,  noxious  weeds  will 
be,  at  least,  reduced  in  permanent  pastures,  if  not  en- 
tirely removed.  Those  who  may  desire  to  get  more- 
information  \vith  reference  to  destroying  weeds  are  re- 
ferred to  the  book,  "Weeds  and  How  to  Eradicate 
Them,"  written  by  the  author  in  1803. 

Fertilizing  and  Renewing. — The  necessity  for  having 
the  soil  in  a  good  condition  as  to  fertility  when  perma- 
nent pastures  are  laid  down  has  been  dwelt  upon  ( see- 
page 392).  When  the  land  has  been  thus  enriched,  usu- 
ally no  further  fertilization  is  necessary  for  a  few 
years — how  many  can  only  be  determined  by  the  needs 
of  the  land.  But  it  is  evident  that  no  soil  can  furnish 
grazing  indefinitely,  especially  for  cattle  without  more 
or  less  of  depletion  in  fertility  because  of  the  flesh, 
bone  and  milk  product  sold.  The  necessity  for  fertiliz- 
ing the  pastures,  therefore,  will  always  exist,  and  the 
production  from  the  same  will  be  measurably  propor- 
tionate to  the  extent  of  the  enrichment.  Inattention 
to  this  essential  in  the  management  of  permanent  pas- 
tures furnishes  one  reason  why  they  are  not  more 
in  favor  with  the  American  farmer. 

Usually  commercial  fertilizers  are  preferred  for  such 
manuring  but  farm  yard  manure,  if  it  could  be  ob- 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  393 

tained  practically  free  from  weed  seeds  would  be  great- 
ly  serviceable  for  such  dressings.  Muck  from  swamps 
and  peat  from  bogs,  when  the  latter  is  sufficiently  de- 
cayed are  also  helpful  on  certain  soils;  the  same  is 
true  of  the  material  from  compost  heaps,  of  marls,  lime 
and  gypsum.  When  applying  these  dressings,  the  cost 
of  the  labor  and  the  distance  to  which  they  need  to  be 
drawn  must  be  carefully  considered.  Light  dressings 
and  frequent  are  to  be  preferred  to  heavy  and  infre- 
quent dressings,  as  in  the  former  instances  there  is  less 
loss  through  fertility  being  carried  away  by  excess  of 
water. 

After  the  pastures  are  laid  down,  commercial  fer- 
tilizers can  of  course  be  only  applied  on  the  surface. 
By  whatever  name  these  may  be  known  in  the  market 
the  important  food  elements  in  them  for  the  grasses  are 
not  morfi  than  three,  viz.,  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash.  The  first  is  more  commonly  applied  in  the 
form  of  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  ammonia  or  flesh 
meal  from  slaughter  houses  and  it  is  helpful  in  promot- 
ing growth  in  grasses  and  clovers.  The  second  is  used 
in  such  forms  as  ground  bone,  ground  rock  containing 
phosphates  and  basic  slag  and  is  especially  helpful  to 
the  grasses.  The  third  is  used  in  such  forms  as  muri- 
ate and  sulphate  of  potash,  kainit  and  wood  ashes,  and, 
although  quite  helpful  to  both  grasses  and  clovers,  it 
tends  more  to  stimulate  growth  in  the  latter. 

Whether  one  or  two  or  all  three  of  these  shall  be 
applied  as  top  dressings;  the  quantities  of  each  that 
shall  be  used  and  the  frequency  of  the  dressings  must 
be  determined  by  the  needs  of  the  soil.  In  some  in- 


394  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

stances,  only  one  is  needed;  in  others,  two;  in  yet  oth- 
ers, all  three.  Dressings  that  are  suitable  for  Con- 
necticut soils  may  not  be  suitable  for  those  of  Caro- 
lina; and  dressings  that  may  be  suitable  for  soil  in 
one  field  may  not  be  suitable  for  soil  which  is  different 
in  an  adjoining  field  or  in  the  same  field.  The  farmer, 
therefore,  who  does  not  know  the  precise  needs  of  his 
land  should  experiment  upon  small  areas,  until  be  ascer- 
tains which  fertilizers  and  how  much  it  will  pay  him  to 
apply. 

Usually  not  more  than  100  to  200  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen fertilizer  is  used  per  acre  during  one  year.  Two 
separate  dressings  of  50  to  100  pounds  each  are  pre- 
ferred to  one  dressing  of  100  to  200  pounds;  the  first 
being  given  soon  after  growth  begins  and  the  second, 
during  some  moist  season  in  the  summer.  When  ap- 
plied in  a  very  dry  time  the  food  in  the  fertilizer  does 
not  reach  the  plants  until  rain  comes  and  when  ap- 
plied at  a  time  of  too  much  moisture,  or  when  growth 
is  stagnant,  the  plant  food  may  too  soon  leech  out  of 
the  soil.  Finely  ground  bone  or  phosphatie  rock  is 
a  favorite  dressing  for  grass  pastures  in  the  unreduced 
or  reduced  form.  In  the  latter  form,  they  act  more 
quickly  but  for  a  period  less  prolonged.  The  dress- 
ings are  usually  applied  in  the  early  spring.  They 
seldom  exceed  200  pounds  per  acre  and  frequently  not 
more  than  half  that  quantity  is  used.  Potash  is  also 
applied  in  the  spring  and  in  some  instances  the  har- 
row follows  the  application,  as  in  the  case  of  phos- 
phoric acid.  Wood  ashes  are  commonly  applied  at  the 
rate  of  about  50  bushels  per  acre  in  the  unleeched  form 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  395 

and  200  bushels  when  leeched.  Nitrogen  is  sometimes 
applied  every  year,  since  its  effects  are  not  abiding, 
but  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  being  of  slower  action 
are  not  usually  applied  every  year.  Attention  is  called' 
to  the  importance  of  noting  carefully  the  percentage  of 
plant  food,  as  given  by  reliable  analysis  in  the  various 
fertilizers  purchased;  this,  of  course,  has  an  important 
bearing  on  their  value. 

Transforming  Brush  Lands. — On  many  parts  of  the 
continent  are  what  are  termed  "brush  lands."  These 
are  covered  more  or  less  with  bushes  such  as  witch 
hazel  and  willow  to  the  extent  of  preventing  the  growth 
of  grasses.  These  areas  are  more  frequent  on  the  bor- 
ders of  prairie  land  and  on  some  kinds  of  prairie.  In 
other  instances,  the  forest  has  been  cut  away  and  a 
dense  growth  of  underwood  in  the  brush  stage,  or  a 
little  larger  than  brush,  is  taking  possession  of  the 
land.  In  yet  other  instances,  fire  has  but  recently 
passed  through  the  forest,  killing  the  standing  timber 
and  consuming  much  of  the  debris  which  covers  the 
earth;  and  a  thicket  of  young  trees  is  again  covering 
the  ground.  The  largest  areas  of  these  lands  are  found 
in  the  northern  states,  and  the  question  of  transform- 
ing them  into  pastures,  without  clearing  the  land  en- 
tirely by  hand  labor,  is  one  of  considerable  importance. 
The  method  of  doing  this  work  would  be,  in  outline,  as 
follows : 

Introduce  goats  to  browse  upon  the  brush;  the  An- 
gora variety  or  their  grades  are  to  be  preferred  because 
of  the  relative  value  of  the  mohair.  The  goats  will  do 
their  work  more  quickly  and  more  effectively,  if  con- 
Grasses — 26. 


396  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

fined  by  suitable  fencing  to  a  limited  area,  as  much 
as  they  will  clean  up  in  one  or  two  successive  years. 
If  some  of  the  young  trees  are  so  large  that  the  goats 
cannot  reach  the  browse,  it  may  be  necessary  to  fell 
them  with  the  axe,  leaving  the  trimming  to  the  goats. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  year,  in  the  late  fall  or  early 
spring,  grass  seeds  should  be  scattered  over  the  land; 
these,  of  course,  cannot  be  harrowed.  Nevertheless, 
they  will  usually  germinate  on  such  land,  except  where 
the  moisture  is  too  much  lacking  which  is  sometimes 
the  case  amid  the  eastern  ranges  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains. 

From  what  has  been  said  with  reference  to  grasses 
adapted  to  various  parts  of  the  continent  (see  pp.  373- 
384),  the  varieties  best  suited  to  the  several  localities 
may  be  ascertained.  To  simplify  the  matter,  it  would  be 
correct  to  say,  that  where  it  is  desired  to  remove  the 
trees  and  bushes  entirely,  the  following  formulas  would 
answer  for  nearly  all  areas  in  the  North  and  South 
respectively : 

For  the  North —  Lbs.  per  Acre, 

Timothy  5 

Kentucky  blue 5 

Medium  red  clover 3 

Alsike  clover  1 

Small  white  clover 1 

Total  15 

For  the  South- 
Meadow  fescue 3 

Tall  oat   2 

Perennial  rye 3 

Orchard  3 

Japan  clover 3 

Small  white   1 

Total   15 


PERMANENT   PASTURES.  397 

In  the  South,  the  autumn  months  would  be  more  suit- 
able for  sowing  the  seed.  In  the  North,  the  hazard  of 
losing  the  seed,  through  dry  weather,  would  be  lessened 
by  sowing  half  the  quantity  one  season,  and  the  other 
half  the  following  season ;  but  such  hazard  to  seed  sown 
on  new  land  is  not  very  great. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  season  or  the  second,  accord- 
ing to  the  extent  to  which  the  brush  has  been  destroyed, 
sheep  should  be  introduced  and  the  goats  moved  on  to 
fresh  feeding  grounds,  as  browse,  with  some  grass,  re 
the  natural  food  of  the  goats,  and  grass  is  the  natural 
food  of  the  sheep.  The  latter  will  also  prevent  the 
bushes  and  young  trees  from  regaining  a  foothold  on 
such  pastures  and  will  so  crop  down  weeds  that  the 
grasses  sown  will  before  very  long  make  clean  and  ex- 
cellent pasture. 

When  grasses  are  sown  thus  on  areas  of  "slashed 
over"  forest  lands,  which  have  been  run  over  by  fire,  or 
amid  the  standing  and  fallen  dead  timber  of  the  fire 
swept  forests  yet  uncut,  the  germination  is  so  sure 
and  the  growth  so  rapid  that  these  may  be  readily  trans- 
formed into  pastures,  by  simply  sowing  the  seed  and 
introducing  live  stock  to  graze  upon  the  land.  In 
clearing  timber  lands,  if  they  are  thus  laid  down  to 
grass,  they  at  once  become  productive  and  will  continue 
so  until  broken  with  the  plough,  and  without  the  neces- 
sity of  applying  fertilizers  for  several  years  at  least. 
Meantime  the  stumps,  if  of  the  hardwood,  will  in  time 
decay  and  leave  the  land  ready  for  the  plough  without 
entailing  any  considerable  labor  in  their  removal.  This 


398  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

method  of  clearing  land  is  one  of  the  simplest  and 
least  expensive  that  can  be  adopted. 

When  it  is  desired  to  transform  forests  into  pas- 
tures of  the  park  or  grove  order,  the  method  of  so 
changing  them  will,  to  some  extent,  depend  upon  the 
growth  of  trees  present.  When  all  the  trees  are  large, 
change  can  be  made,  with  less  hazard  to  the  trees  that 
are  left,  by  gradually  cutting  down  and  removing  such 
as  are  not  to  remain,  and  by  scattering  the  seeds  of 
such  grasses  as  will  grow  in  shade  in  the  openings. 
(See  p.  372.)  Meantime  grazing  should  begin  to  keep 
down  weeds  and  second  growth  of  trees.  Fire  should 
not  be  introduced  to  consume  the  debris,  unless  care- 
fully guarded  from  injuring  the  trees  that  are  to  re- 
main. When  the  forest  is  of  trees  of  relatively  small 
growth  and  thick  with  brush,  goats  may  be  introduced 
to  kill  the  brush  as  described  above  (see  p.  395)  be- 
fore grass  seeds  are  sown.  But  they  may  also  bark 
some  trees,  which  it  may  be  desirable  to  retain.  If 
fire  is  allowed  to  run  over  the  ground  in  the  early 
spring,  to  consume  the  fallen  leaves  before  the  grasses 
are  sown,  the  stand  of  these  will  be  made  much  more 
certain. 

Transforming  Native  Prairie  Pastures. — In  certain 
areas,  it  may  be  desirable  to  transform  native  prairie 
pastures  into  those  composed  of  grasses,  that  will  pro- 
vide more  pasture  than  is  furnished  by  the  former,  and 
without  breaking  the  land  with  the  plough  or  other  im- 
plement of  tillage.  There  are  localities  where-  such 
transformation  can  be  more  surely  made  when  imple- 
ments for  stirring  the  ground  are  not  used  than  where 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  399 

they  are.  In  these,  the  soils  are  light  and  the  normal 
precipitation  is  also  light.  Such  areas  are  sometimes 
found  along  the  eastern  border  of  the  semi-arid  belt 
and  probably  also  in  other  localities. 

Such  transformation  may  be  made  by  sowing  the 
seed  of  the  grasses  desired  in  the  early  spring.  Close 
pasturing  should  follow.  Where  this  cannot  be  done 
the  mower  should  be  used  once  or  twice  to  remove 
shade ;  where  neither  is  done  the  seed  sown  will  almost 
certainly  be  thrown  away. 

The  best  grasses  to  sow  in  areas  where  they  will 
grow  are  blue  grass  and  small  white  clover;  timothy 
and  the  red  -clovers  may  sometimes  be  sown  on  upland 
prairie,  alsike  clover  being  added  in  low  lands.  There 
is  much  less  hazard  in  sowing  a  few  pounds  of  seed 
per  acre,  two  or  even  three  years  in  succession,  than  in 
sowing  all  the  seed  in  one  year. 

Permanent  Grasses  for  Shifting  Lands. — Some  soils 
are  of  such  a  character,  •  that  when  cultivated  for  any 
considerable  time;  more  or  less  of  the  soil  is  carried 
down  to  lower  levels  and,  in  some  instances,  much  of 
It  is  carried  quite  away,  in  solution  in  the  water,  that 
runs  over  the  surface  of  the  land.  Gullies  are  formed 
with  more  or  less  frequency  and  of  ever  increasing 
size.  These  seriously  interfere  with  the  tilling  of  the 
land  and  with  crop  production ;  they  are  at  all  times 
most  unsightly.  The  best  of  the  soil  is  thus  carried 
down  to  the  lower  lands  or  washed  away  entirely.  To 
so  great  an  extent  has  this  eroding  process  been  al- 
lowed, especially  in  some  parts  of  the  South,  that  the 
further  cultivation  of  the  soil  has  been  abandoned. 


400  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Prominent  among  the  influences  that  favor  such  ero- 
sions are:  1.  Unevenncss  in  the  surface  of  the  land. 
The  steeper  the  descent,  the  more  easily  does  the  soif 
moved  downward.  2.  The  sandy  character  of  the  soil. 
The  finer  the  sand,  the  more  easily  does  it  move.  3. 
The  frequency  and  violence  of  the  precipitation.  Areas, 
where  violent  thunder  storms  occur  or  occasional  cloud- 
bursts, are  much  liable  to  suffer  from  erosion.  4.  Lack 
of  porosity  in  the  subsoil  which  prevents  the  quick  de- 
scent of  water  in  the  soil,  and  the  nearer  the  hard  sub- 
soil comes  to  the  surface,  the  greater  is  the  loss  of  sur- 
face soil.  5.  Lack  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil.  The 
less  of  this  in  the  soil,  the  less  the  water  which  it  ab- 
sorbs and  the  less  is  the  obstruction  to  the  removal  of 
soil  particles. 

Important  among  the  counteracting  and  preventive 
influences  are  the  following:  1.  Ploughing  deeply  so 
that  the  absorptive  power  of  the  ground  will  be  in- 
creased. 2.  Making  parallel  surface  drains  at  such  dis- 
tances as  may  be  deemed  proper  along  the  sides  of  hills 
to  arrest  and  carry  descending  water  along  rather  than 
down  the  hill.  3.  Constructing  underdrains  down  the 
depressions  laid  not  far  from  the  surface  and  of  con- 
siderable capacity  to  aid  in  carrying  away  the  water. 
4.  Laying  such  lands  down  to  permanent  pasture  and 
maintaining  them  as  such.  5.  Planting  them  with  for- 
est trees.  Where  such  lands  are  not  to  be  planted  to 
forest,  the  aim  should  be  to  keep  them  in  permanent 
pasture. 

The  best  grasses  for  such  pasture  in  the  Northwest 
is  Russian  brome ;  in  the  North,  a  mixture  of  Kentucky 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  401 

blue  and  white  clover ;  and  in  the  South,  Bermuda;  Be- 
fore these  are  sown  on  gullied  lands,  the  aim  should 
be  to  fill  them  by  llie  aid  of  the  plough  and  scraper; 
then  to  fertilize  them  before  sowing  the  seed.  Some 
nurse  crop,  as  rye,  may  be  helpful  in  holding  the  soil 
until  the  grasses  get  started.  On  steep  side  hills,  it 
may  prove  advantageous  to  strew  litter  or  straw  thinly 
over  the  newly  sown  land. 

Gullies  may  frequently  be  prevented  from  washing 
deeper  by  perseveringly  throwing  in  them  rubbish,  such 
as  brush  and  cornstalks,  for  a  time,  to  arrest  the  silt 
and  then  by  sowing  in  them,  and  along  the  sides  such 
soil-binding  grasses  as  Russian  brome  in  the  North, 
and  Bermuda  in  the  South.  The  tendency  in  these 
will  be  to  further  arrest  silt  and  to  grow  up  through  it, 
thus  raising  the  land  in  the  ditch  gradually  to  a  higher 
level. 

Renewing. — When  permanent  pastures  form  a  good 
even  sod,  made  up  of  a  number  of  grasses,  it  is  ques- 
tionable if  it  should  be  disturbed  with  the  plough. or 
disk,  especially  in  moist  climates.  Renewal,  in  such 
instances,  should  rather  be  attempted  through  fertiliz- 
ation. It  may  be  advantageous  sometimes  to  stir  the 
surface  of  blue  grass  pastures  with  the  disk  and  to 
add  some  seed  of  one,  two  or  three  varieties  of  clover. 
The  best  time  probably  for  doing  this  work,  especially 
on  prairie  soils,  is  the  early  spring,  just  when  the  frost 
has  come  out  far  enough  to  admit  of  cutting  down  to 
the  required  depth  with  the  disks.  When  disked  one 
way,  it  may  be  profitable,  in  many  instances,  to  disk 
both  ways,  driving  at  an  angle  the  second  time.  A  few 


402  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

pounds  of  clover  seeds  should  then  be  scattered  over 
the  land,  and  of  one  or  more  grasses,  if  desired.  The 
ground  is  then  smoothed  down  with  the  harrow.  On 
some  soils,  it  may  be  helpful  to  partly  smooth  the 
ground,  before  sowing  the  seed.  The  grazing  may  go 
on  without  interruption. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  renewing  of  Russian 
brome  (see  p.  188),  of  Quack  grass  (see  p.  242)  and 
of  Johnson  grass  (see  p.  257),  by  using  the  plough  and 
harrow.  Bermuda  grass  may  also  be  renewed  (see  p. 
128).  Some  advocate  renewal  by  simply  using  the  or- 
dinary harrow.  To  use  it  thus  is  of  questionable  ad- 
vantage, the  impression  made  on  old  sod  is  so  slight. 

In  some  instances  on  light  soils  or  on  good  soils  un- 
derlaid with  gravel,  the  grasses  fail  in  certain  parts 
from  drought  or  from  excessive  pasturing.  The  rem- 
edy is  to  disk  the  ground  where  the  pastures  have  failed, 
and  to  sow  seed  again  along  with  rye  or  other  grain. 
Here  also,  the  pasturing  may  go  on  as  usual,  if  the  seed 
has  been  plentifully  sown. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY. 

The  hay  crop  in  the  United  States  for  1899,  as  re- 
ported by  the  United  States  Census,  taken  in  1900,  was 
as  follows : 

Tame  and  Cultivated  grasses 30,605,316  tons 

Wild,  Salt,  Prairie  grasses 13,904,206     " 

Alfalfa    6,222,568     ' 

Millet  and  Hungarian  grasses 4,223,500 

Clover 4,133,409     vl 

Grains  cut  green  for  hay 3,262,957     " 

The  above  enumeration  does  not  include  what  is 
designated  as  forage  crops  sown  for  forage  and  corn 
stalks,  and  is  submitted  to  indicate  the  relative  eco- 
nomic importance  of  the  different  classes  of  plants,  as 
grouped  for  the  production  of  hay,  at  the  time  when 
the  census  was  taken.  From  this  table,  the  great  rela- 
tive importance  of  the  tame  and  cultivated  grasses,  as 
factors  in  producing  hay,  will  be  at  once  apparent ; 
and  it  may  be  expected  to  increase  relatively  rather  than 
decrease,  since  the  source  of  supply  for  wild  hay  will 
gradually  decrease  until  it  will  ultimately  almost  dis- 
appear. The  grains  cut  green  for  hay  and  the  mil- 
lets which  are  annuals,  also  furnish  a  relatively  large 
amount  of  the  hay  used,  the  sum  total  being  7,396,366 
tons.  In  1899,  each  of  the  following  states  produced 
more  hay  from  grains  cut  green  than  they  produced  of 


404  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

cultivated  hay,  viz.,  Arizona,  Arkansas,  California,  In- 
dian Territory,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  New  Mexico, 
Oklahoma  and  South  Dakota,  hence  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  knowing  how  to  grow  these  in  the  best  form  and 
in  the  best  combinations. 

Since  in  Chapter  XV.  the  grasses  and  other  plants 
grown  for  pasture  and  temporary  meadow  are  dis- 
cussed together,  in  the  present  chapter  only  the  grass- 
es will  be  discussed  in  their  relation  to  providing  hay 
from  permanent  meadows  and  other  plants  from  which 
hay  is  made  in  relation  to  hay  producing  only.  Not- 
withstanding the  importance  of  the  latter  as  a  source 
of  supply  to  the  farmers  of  the  South  and  West,  they 
will  be  discussed  briefly,  as  the  author  purposes  to  treat 
of  these  more  fully  in  a  subsequent  work  dealing  with 
cereals. 

In  the  following  discussion,  it  may  happen  in  some 
instances,  larger  quantities  of  seed  may  be  named,  as 
suitable  for  sowing  in  permanent  meadows,  than  have 
previously  been  named  for  temporary  meadows ;  since 
it  is  more  important  in  the  latter  to  secure  a  good 
stand  of  the  seeds.  It  is  also  important,  when  laying 
down  such  meadows  that,  when  grasses  are  sown  in 
combinations,  a  careful  regard  must  be  had  to  sowing 
those  together  which  mature  about  the  same  time. 

HAY  CROPS  FOR  STATES  AA'D  PROVINCES. 

In  order  the  more  intelligently  to  discuss  this  ques- 
tion, the  states  and  the  provinces  will  be  divided  into 
groups.  The  divisions  will  be  the  same  as  those  adopt- 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING   HAY.  405 

ed  in  Chapters  XV.  and  XVI.,  when  discussing  Pas 
tures,  Temporary  and  Permanent. 

For  the  Northeastern,  tilaies.— For  the  states  inc'lud- 
ed  in  this  group,  see  p.  342,  and  for  grasses  for  tem- 
porary meadows,  see  p.  343.  The  best  plant  for  up- 
land soils  and  also  for  river  bottoms,  where  it  will  grow 
in  this  group  of  states  and  provinces,  is  alfalfa.  On 
the  upland,  it  will  succeed  best  on  good  soils,  well  en- 
riched and  underlaid  with  clay,  not  too  dense  to  be 
penetrated  by  the  roots.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in 
the  spring  about  the  end  of  the  grain  growing  season, 
by  hand  or  with  such  machines  as  will  do  the  work  prop- 
erly. It  is  preferably  sown  alone  but  may  be  sown 
with  various  nurse  crops  and  at  the  rate  of  15  to  20 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  This  subject  is  further  dis- 
cussed in  "Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them"  by  the 
author.  The  best  permanent  hay  grass  for  soils  inclin- 
ing to  light,  is  Russian  brorne,  sown  at  the  rate  of  20 
pounds  per  acre  (see  p.  181).  The  best  grasses  for 
permanent  meadows  on  productive  upland  soils  are  tim- 
othy and  redtop,  sown  at  the  rate  of  6  pounds  of  the 
former  and  G  or  7  of  the  latter.  The  best  average  per- 
manent meadow  grasses,  sown  in  combination  for  low- 
lands are  timothy,  redtop  and  alsike  clover,  sown  at  the 
rate  of  4,  4  and  3  pounds,  respectively,  per  acre.  On 
some  low  lands,  fowl  meadow  makes  excellent  perma- 
nent meadow,  and  possibly  also  meadow  foxtail. 

Annuals  grown  for  hay  in  this  group  are  crimson 
clover,  the  various  kinds  of  millet,  oats,  peas  and  vetch- 
es; crimson  clover  and  the  millets  ars  usually  sown 
alone;  oats  are  also  frequently  sown  thus,  but  often  also 


406  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GLIOW  THEM. 

in  conjunction  with  the  Canada  field  pea  or  vetches  or 
both  combined. 

Crimson  clover  is  sown  on  prepared  land  in  August 
and  September,  using  15  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  It 
is  only  adapted  to  the  more  southerly  of  the  states  of 
this  group.  It  is  usually  ready  for  harvesting  in  May. 
For  further  facts,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  book, 
"Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them,'7  by  the  author. 

Of  the  four  classes  of  millets,  viz.,  Foxtail,  Barnyard, 
Broomcorn  and  Pearl,  the  first  named  is  the  best  for  hay 
production  in  this  group;  the  varieties  known  respec- 
tively as  Hungarian  and  German  are  especially  suitable. 
These  are  sown  preferably  on  clean  land  in  the  late 
spring,  subsequent  to  the  corn  planting  season  and  on 
through  June.  They  require  fro*n  60  to  75  days  to 
reach  the  proper  stage  for  cutting.  From  2  to  4  pecks 
of  seed  per  acre  are  sown,  according  to  the  firmness  of 
the  hay  wanted.  It  is  sown  by  hand  or  with  the  grain 
drill,  and  when  sown  by  hand  it  is  covered  with  the  aid 
of  the  harrow  and  roller.  When  sown  with  the  drill, 
the  seed  should  be  buried  from  1  to  2  inches  only,  the 
soil  being  right  as  to  moisture.  The  sowing  of  millets 
is  further  discussed  in  "Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo/7  by 
the  author. 

The  oats  are  sown  alone  to  a  very  considerable  ex- 
tent, to  provide  hay,  more  especially  for  dairy  cows. 
They  are  sown  in  the  ovdinary  way,  in  the  spring  as 
soon  as  the  land  is  ready,  whether  sown  alone  or  with 
peas  or  vetches  or  both.  From  2^  to  3  bushels  of  seed 
should  be  sown  per  acre,  using  at  least  25  per  cent 
more  seed  than  to  grow  a  crop  of  grain,  in  order 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  407 

to  insure  greater  fineness  in  the  hay.  When  sown 
with  peas  or  vetches,  ahout  1|  bushels  of  each  per  acre 
will  suffice,  when  sown  with  both  peas  and  vetches,  5 
pecks  of  oats,  3  of  peas  and  3  of  vetches  will  probably 
suffice.  The  aim  should  be  to  sow  as  much  of  peas  or 
vetches  in  the  mixture  as  are  likely  to  be  sustained  by 
the  oats,  as  these  furnish  not  only  the  more  valuable 
hay  plants,  but  also  the  more  palatable.  This  can  only 
be  determined  by  experience  in  growing  them. 

For  the  Southeastern  States. — Eor  the  states  included 
in  this  group,  see  p.  344,  and  for  grasses  for  temporary 
meadows,  see  p.  344.  The  best  permanent  meadow 
plant,  on  average  soils,  in  this  group  is  Bermuda  grass 
and  on  low  lands,  Johnson  grass.  The  former  of  these 
is  discussed  in  Chapter  V  and  the  latter  in  Chapter 
XII,  p.  248.  The  most  valuable  grasses  for  permanent 
meadows,  sown  in  combination,  on  the  better  class  of 
upland  soils,  are  orchard,  redtop,  tall  oat  and  meadow 
fescue.  Of  these,  orchard  and  tall  oat  go  best  together, 
since  they  mature  about  the  same  time;  likewise  red- 
top  and  meadow  fescue;  of  the  two  first,  28  and  12 
pounds  respectively  should  be  sown  per  acre,  and  of  the 
two  last,  10  and  18  pounds  respectively.  The  perma- 
nency of  these  has  its  limits  as  in  time  they  will  fail. 
In  ^certain  areas,  more  especially  on  bottom  lands  suffi- 
ciently drained,  and  also  on  certain  upland  soils  on  an 
open  clay  foundation,  alfalfa  makes  good  permanent 
meadow.  As  stated  above,  from  15  to  20  pounds  of  seed 
are  sown  per  acre,  but  in  these  states  the  crop  is  prefer- 
ably sown  in  the  fall.  This,  at  least,  will  hold  good 
in  many  localities. 


408  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Among  the  best  annuals  grown  for  hay  are  crimson 
clover,  usually  grown  alone,  winter  oats,  winter  barley 
or  winter  rye,  grown  alone  or  in  combination  with  the 
sand  vetch,  cow  pea  and  soy  bean ;  on  the  best  class  of 
soils,  millets  of  the  Foxtail  and  Barnyard  varieties. 
These  grain  crops  are  more  important  relatively  in  fur- 
nishing hay  to  southern  farmers,  than  grain  crops  arc- 
to  farmers  in  the  North,  owing  to  the  greater  abundance 
of  other  hay  crops  in  the  Xorth.  Crimson  clover  is 
grown  as  described  above  (see  p.  406),  but  may  be  sown 
later  and  cut  earlier ;  of  the  small  winter  cereals  men- 
tioned, oats  is  by  far  the  most  valuable  for  hay.  Rye 
is  more  hardy  and  yields  well  but  is  lacking  in  palatabil- 
ity.  It  may  be  wise,  however,  in  some  instances,  to 
sow  it  with  the  sand  vetch  in  order  to  sustain  the  lat- 
ter. These  small  cereal  grains  should  be  sown  in  the 
autumn,  as  soon  as  the  fall  rains  come,  using  not  less 
than  2  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre,  when  sown  alone,  and 
in  many  instances  they  will  also  furnish  grazing  for  thci 
winter  and  later  will  grow  up  into  hay ;  when  winter 
oats  are  sown  with  the  sand  vetch,  use  1  bushel  of  the 
seed  of  each  per  acre  and,  in  some  cases,  less  of  the  seed 
of  the  vetches;  when  winter  rye  is  used  instead  of  oats, 
sow  -J  bushel  of  rye  and  1£  bushels  of  the  vetch ;  enough 
rye  only  is  wanted  to  sustain  the  vetch.  Cow  peas  are 
sown  subsequently  to  the  corn  planting  season  and  are 
usually  sown  with  the  grain  drill.  When  sown  for  hay 
all  the  tubes  or  every  other  tub:*  is  open,  or  only  as 
many  open  as  will  suffice  to  make  room  for  properly 
cultivating  the  crop.  The  amount  of  seed  varies  from 
2  bushels  per  acre  to  2  pecks,  according  to  the  soil,  the 


o 

3 

H      H 
n>       r 

i  p 

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MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  409 

variety  and  the  object  sought.  The  variety  sown  would 
also  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  locality.  When  the 
crop  is  not  cultivated,  the  harrow  should  be  used  on 
it  with  more  or  less  freedom,  in  the  early  stages  of 
growth.  What  has  been  said  about  the  sowing  of  cow 
peas  will  equally  apply  to  soy  beans,  grown  for  hay. 
Millets  can  only  be  sown  upon  the  better  class  of  soils. 
Their  relative  importance  in  furnishing  hay  in  this 
group  is  not  so  high  as  in  some  other  groups,  owing  in 
a  large  measure  to  soil  conditions.  Sorghum  is  best 
sown  just  at  the  close  of  the  corn  planting  season  on 
well  prepared  and  fertilized  land.  From  1  to  2  bushels 
of  seed  are  drilled  in  with  the  grain  drill  in  order  to 
make  the  growth  fine.  The  crop  may  be  cut  twice  for 
hay.  The  chief  objection  to  it  is  that  it  is  difficult  to 
cure  for  hay,  nor  is  it  relished  so  much  by  stock,  as  when 
grown"  as  fodder  and  fed  when  more  mature.  In  sev- 
eral of  the  southern  states,  however,  it  is  much  grown 
for  hay ;  considerable  crab  grass  is  also  grown  for  hay 
(see  p.  262). 

For  the  Canadian  Northwest. — For  the  states  and 
provinces  included  in  this  group,  see  p.  346,  and  for 
grasses  for  temporary  meadows,  see  p.  346.  The  best 
grass  for  permanent  meadows  in  this  area  generally  is 
Russian  brome.  Next  to  it,  especially  in  dry  areas,  is 
western  rye,  and,  in  areas  more  moist,  timothy.  These 
are  best  sown  for  permanent  meadow  in  the  late  sum- 
mer and  on  summer-fallowed  land  but  may  also  be  sown 
in  the  spring  or  in  the  quite  late  autumn  on  clean  land. 
When  sown  early  in  the  spring,  it  may  be  with  a  nurse 
crop,  thinly  sowi  and  cut  for  hay  at  the  heading  out 
Grasses— 27. 


410  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

stage.  When  Russian  brome  arid  timothy  are  sown,  use 
10  and  6  pounds  of  seed  respectively;  when  Russian 
brome  and  rye  grass  are  sown,  use  9  and  10  pounds 
respectively.  For  methods  of  sowing,  see  p.  179. 

The  best  grain  crops  for  hay  alone  or  oats  and  Cana- 
da field  peas,  and  probably  oats  and  vetches,  especial- 
ly northward  as  indicated  by  the  abundance  of  wild 
peas  growing  in  northern  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan. 
Oats  and  peas  may  be  sown  with  the  drill  in  the  mixed 
form,  using  about  -J  bushel  of  oats  to  about  2  bushels 
of  peas  and  about  -J  bushel  of  oats  to  1J  bushels  of 
vetches  per  acre.  The  proportion  may  need  to  be  va- 
ried somewhat  in  different  areas  to  meet  requirements. 
They  should  be  sown  on  fall  ploughed  land  and  early 
in  the  spring;  millet  also  does  well  in  much  of  this 
area. 

For  the  Upper  Mississippi  Basin. — For  the  area  in- 
cluded in  this  group,  see  p.  347,  and  for  temporary 
hay  meadows,  grown  in  them,  see  p.  347.  The  best 
single  plants  for  permanent  hay  meadows  in  Wiscon- 
sin, Illinois,  Iowa  and  Minnesota  are  Russian  brome, 
on  dry  soils,  and  timothy  and  redtop,  for  moist  lands. 
In  laying  these  down,  sow  of  Russian  brome  15  pounds 
per  acre;  of  timothy,  12  pounds  'and  of  redtop  12 
pounds;  alfalfa  will  also  grow  in  many  parts  of  theso 
states,  and  when  it  does  will  make  excellent  permanent 
meadow.  But  by  far  the  best  combination  for  perma- 
nent meadows  is  timothy,  redtop  and  alsike  clover,  sown 
on  moist  soils,  at  the  rate  of  4,  4  and  3  pounds  re- 
spectively per  acre.  In  Missouri,  the  best  permanent 
meadow  grasses  are  much  the  same  as  in  these  states, 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  411 

except  that  Eussian  brome  has  a  much  less  important 
place.  In  western  Minnesota  and  eastern  North  and 
South  Dakota,  Kussian  brome  is  the  best  permanent 
meadow  grass  and  timothy  is  probably  next  to  it; 
alfalfa  is  also  likely  to  have  its  place  in  these.  In 
eastern  Kansas  arid  Nebraska  alfalfa  is  far  the  best 
permanent  meadow  plant ;  and  next  to  it  are  meadow 
fescue,  Eussian  bromc,  tall  oat  grass  and  orchard  grass. 
The  latter  two  may  be  sown  together  for  permanent 
meadow,  since  they  mature  about  the  same  time,  using 
12  pounds  of  seed  of  the  former  and  28  pounds  of  the 
latter  per  acre,  but  the  meadow  from  these  will  not 
be  very  enduring.  Meadow  fescue,  sown  at  the  rate 
of  18  pounds  per  acre,  or  Kussian  brome  sown  at  the  rate 
of  15  pounds  per  acre,  will  be  more  abiding,  but  the 
former  will  not  produce  very  large  yields  of  hay. 

The  annual  hay  plants  for  this  group  of  states  north- 
ward, include  oats,  peas  and  millets,  more  particularly 
of  the  small  varieties.  The  prairie  soils  of  nearly  all 
the  area  in  this  group  has  high  adaptation  for  millet. 
Southward  in  the  same,  cow  peas  and  soy  beans  are 
coming  to  be  grown.  For  growing  oats  and  peas,  see  p. 
407;  millet,  p.  336;  soy  beans  and  cow  peas,  p.  407. 

For  the  Semi-Arid  Belt. — For  the  area  included  in 
this  belt,  see  p.  348,  and  for  the  temporary  meadows  in 
the  same,  see  p.  348.  The  best  permanent  hay  plant 
for  the  dry  land  on  which  crops  can  be  grown  is  Rus- 
sian brome  with  western  rye  grass  a  close  second,  sowing 
15  pounds  of  the  seed  of  each,  when  sown  alone,  and 
about  half  the  amount  of  each  when  sown  together.  On 
some  of  the  bench  lands  northward,  timothy  is  the  best 


412  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

hay  plant  at  the  present  time;  on  others  of  these,  al- 
falfa ;  of  the  former,  sow  10  pounds  of  seed  and  of  tho 
latter  15  pounds.  On  the  unirrigated  wheat  growing 
lands  of  Washington,  Idaho  and  Oregon,  a  combination 
of  Eussian  brome,  orchard  and  tall  oat  grasses,  using 
5,  9  and  4  pounds  of  seed  respectively,  will  probably 
make  the  best  combination  for  permanent  meadow;  al- 
falfa will  also  grow  well  on  much  of  this  land. 

In  these  areas  and  in  others  similar  in  some  other 
states,  especially  California,  a  very  large  amount  of 
hay  is  furnished  by  the  small  cereal  grains.  For  this 
purpose,  much  wheat  is  grown,  but  oats  and  barley  are 
also  extensively  used  and  in  some  localities,  winter  rye 
and  speltz.  These  may  of  course  be  grown  alone  or  in 
combination.  When  grown  for  hay,  about  25  per  cent 
should  be  added  to  the  amount  of  seed  usually  sown 
for  grain.  The  sand  vetch,  though  not  much  grown  as 
yet  in  this  area,  will  grow  well  in  much  of  it  and  would 
make  a  splendid  addition  to  the  hay  crop,  sown  at  the 
rate  of  1  bushel  per  acre,  along  with  about  the  same 
portion  of  grain.  The  dry  climate  and  freedom  from 
rust  in  the  grain  makes  the  hay  from  the  same  more 
palatable  than  it  is  in  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  where  there  is  more  moisture. 

For  Irrigated  Western  Valleys. — For  the  states  in- 
cluded in  this  group,  see  p.  349,  and  for  the  plants 
grown  for  temporary  meadows,  p.  350.  In  these  val- 
leys, many  kinds  of  grasses  may  be  grown  for  perma- 
nent meadow.  Of  these,  alfalfa  is  unquestionably  the 
most  important.  For  all  or  nearly  all  these  lands,  from 
near  Alaska  to  Lower  California,  it  has  wonderful  adap- 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  413 

tation  that  is,  in  a  sense,  remarkable;  from  two  to 
live  crops  a  j^ar,  according  to  latitude  and  altitude,  are 
regularly  grown.  Although  the  crop  is  commonly  sown 
alone,  there  may  be  combined  with  it  various  other 
grasses.  Those  which  grow  quickly  and  which,  like  the 
alfalfa,  will  furnish  more  than  one  cutting,  should  be 
chosen.  Italian  rye  grass  would  be  one  of  the  best 
but  that  it  is  short  lived;  perennial  rye  lives  longer 
but  does  not  grow  so  fast ;  orchard  and  tall  oat  grasses 
may  also  be  thus  grown.  Twenty  pounds  of  alfalfa 
seed  is  ample  when  sown  alone,  but  when  one  of  the 
other  grasses  is  added  a  few  pounds  of  the  seed  of  each 
will  suffice,  more  or  less  being  used,  according  to  the 
object  sought;  the  amount  of  alfalfa  seed  should  be  cor- 
respondingly reduced. 

After  alfalfa,  the  best  permanent  meadow,  for  these 
valleys  for  the  present  time,  is  timothy ;  if  hay  is  wanted 
for  the  market,  more  especially  when  it  has  to  be  trans- 
ported in  the  baled  form,  sow  about  12  pounds  of  seed 
to  the  acre.  When  the  hay  is  wanted  for  home  or  local 
feeding,  sow  10  pounds  of  timothy  and  3  pounds  of  alsike 
clover,  or  6  pounds  of  red  clover  in  lieu  of  the  alsike, 
or  3  pounds  of  the  former  and  2  pounds  of  the  latter. 
Such  mixtures  prove  very  satisfactory  and  last  for  many 
years,  especially  the  mixture  of  timothy  and  alsike 
clover.  The  yield  may  be  further  increased  on  many 
soils  by  sowing  timothy,  redtop  and  alsike  in  combina- 
tion, using  6,  4-  and  3  pounds  of  the  seed  respectively 
per  acre.  Various  other  grasses  may  be  grown,  but 
none  probably  will  prove  so  satisfactory  as  those  that 
have  been  named. 


414  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Various  grain  crops  also  may  be  grown  for  hay  alone- 
or  in  combination.  The  necessity  for  growing  these 
thus  does  not  exist  where  grasses  can  be  grown  so  abun- 
dantly and  of  such  high  excellence. 

West  of  the  Cascades. — For  the  area  included  in  this 
division,  see  p.  351,  and  for  the  grasses  for  temporary 
meadow,  see  p.  352.  The  list  for  permanent  meadow  is 
a  long  one.  It  includes  timothy,  red  top,  orchard  grass, 
meadow  fescue,  perennial  rye  grass,  Russian  brome,  al- 
sike  and  red  clover,  grown  singly  or  in  various  combina- 
tions. The  clovers  here  assume  more  or  less  of  a  peren- 
nial habit  of  growth.  The  amounts  of  seed  to  sow,  when 
these  are  sown  alone,  would  be  about  the  same  as  men- 
tioned for  such  sowing,  when  discussing  each  variety, 
but  minimum  rather  than  maximum  quantities,  would 
suffice,  owing  to  the  moist  character  of  the  climate,  so 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  grasses.  One  of  the  simplest 
and  best  combinations  is  timothy  and  alsike  clover,  espe- 
cially when  the  hay  is  to  be  marketed ;  to  produce  such 
hay  from  10  to  12  pounds  of  timothy  may  be  sown  on 
bottom  and  tide  lands,  and  2  pounds  of  alsike  clover; 
where  the  yield  is  for  home  consumption,  redtop  should 
be  added;  the  proportions  of  seed  then  required  would 
be  about  4  pounds  each  of  timothy  and  redtop,  and  S 
pounds  of  alsike. 

For  the  higher  land,  timothy  and  medium  red  clover 
would  make  meadow  that  would  last  for  several  years,  if 
desired,  sowing  8  pounds  of  the  former  and  6  pounds  of 
the  latter.  The  production  would  probably  be  strength- 
ened by  substituting  3  pouuds  each  of  medium  red  and 
mammoth  clover  for  G  pounds  of  medium  red.  On  the 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  41  "> 

light  and  poorer  soils,  Russian  brome,  tall  oat  and  per- 
ennial rye  grasses  could  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  7,  5  and  7 
pounds  of  the  seed  of  each  respectively.  \7arious  kinds 
of  grain  mixtures  may  be  grown  for  hay.  Of.  these 
oats,  vetches  and  peas  are  the  best;  the  oats  may,  of 
course,  be  grown  alone,  sowing  not  less  than  2^  bushels 
of  seed  to  the  acre.  More  valuable  hay,  however,  is 
produced  when  peas  or  vetches  or  both  are  grown  along 
with  the  oats.  In  the  mixture,  1^  bushels  of  peas  or 
the  same  of  vetches  would  be  the  proper  amounts  to  sow, 
at  least  approximately.  When  both  are  sown,  one-half 
of  the  amount  of  each  would  suffice ;  the  variety  of  vetch 
sown  is  the  common  kind  (Vicia  sativa). 

The  common  vetch  is  sometimes  sown  alone  for  hay, 
but  the  better  plan  is  to  sow  enough  grain  with  it  to 
sustain  the  plants.  In  this  part  of  the  United  States, 
it  is  considered  a  very  excellent  hay  plant.  When  cut 
at  a  stage  a  little  short  of  ripening,  it  makes  particularly 
excellent  food  for  sheep.  It  has  high  adaptation  for 
all  cultivable  portions  of  this  region. 

MISCELLANEOUS  DISCUSSIONS. 

The  discussions  that  now  follow  relate  to  preparing 
the  soil  for  meadows ;  sowing  the  seed ;  harvesting,  cur- 
ing and  storing  the  hay ;  grazing  the  meadows  and  fer- 
tilizing and  renewing  them. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — While  as  previously  intimated, 
careful  preparation  of  the  soil  is  advantageous  in  grow- 
ing all  kinds  of  grasses,  it  may  be  added,  that  it  is  espe- 
cially so,  when  preparing  the  same  for  permanent  mead- 
ows, because  they  are  permanent.  It  would  not  be  pos- 


416  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

sible,  within  the  limits  of  this  work,  to  discuss  in  detail 
the  preparation  that  would  best  suit  all  soils  and  cli- 
mates in  the  various  states.  A  clean  seed  bed,  suitable 
to  the  needs  of  the  climate,  and  well  supplied  with  easily 
accessible  fertility  is  all  important. 

Very  large  yields  of  grass,  composed  mainly  of  tim- 
othy, redtop  and  red  clover  have  been  obtained  by  Mr. 
Geo.  M.  Clark  of  Higganum,  Conn.  He  gives  very 
fine  and  thorough  pulverization  to  the  land  in  summer 
previous  to  sowing  the  seed  with  a  view  to  securing  a 
clean  and  moist  seed  bed ;  sows  large  amounts  of  seed 
and  applies  suitable  fertilizers  liberally  at  the  time  of 
sowing  the  seed  and  subsequently.  By  his  method  two 
cuttings  per  annum  have  been  harvested  with  a  total 
yield  of  over  5  to  more  than  8  tons  of  hay.  In  prepar- 
ing the  land,  the  cutaway  and  spike  harrows  are  chiefly 
used  with  a  view  to  chopping  and  finely  pulverizing  the 
land. 

While  this  method  has  proved  eminently  satisfactory 
for  that  part  of  Connecticut,  to  uphold  the  plan,  as 
some  writers  do,  as  being  that  which  should  be  generally 
followed  in  laying  down  permanent  meadows  would  cer- 
tainly be  misleading.  To  engraft  it  on  the  practice  of 
the  farmers  in  certain  parts  of  Kentucky,  for  instance, 
where  excellent  crops  of  these  grasses  can  be  secured 
for  several  years,  would  be  encouraging  prodigality  in 
labor  and  waste  in  applied  fertility;  results  can  be  ob- 
tained in  certain  parts  of  Kentucky,  by  sowing  the 
grasses  on  clover  sod,  ploughed  and  prepared,  with  only 
a  fractional  part  of  the  labor  involved  in  the  other  case. 
To  spend  a  similar  amount  of  labor  on  land  to  be  laid 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  417 

down  on  the  western  prairies,  which  lifts  with  the  wind 
would  simply  be  encouraging  the  wind  to  blow  it  away ; 
and  to  expend  so  much  labor  on  a  seed  bed  in  the  rainy 
South  without  subsoiling  would  not  be  wise.  While  the 
aim  should  be,  in  preparing  such  lands,  to  have  them 
clean,  finely  pulverized,  moist  and  rich,  these  results 
should  be  sought  by  that  system  which  will  involve  a 
minimum  expenditure  of  labor ;  pulverization  to  the  ex- 
tent of  hazarding  or  inviting  subsequent  impaction 
should  be  avoided;  waste  in  the  methods  of  applying 
fertility  should  be  avoided.  Those  methods  of  prepara- 
tion will  be  best  which  will  best  meet  the  needs  of  the 
locality  whatever  these  may  be. 

Sowing. — What  has  been  said  in  Chapter  XVI,  as  to 
the  time  for  sowing  permanent  pastures,  will  apply 
about  equally  to  permanent  meadows.  (See  p.  385.) 
Over  much  of  the  country,  especially  south  and  west, 
early  autumn  sowing  will  prove  most  satisfactory. 

In  laying  down  permanent  pastures,  the  question  of 
securing  the  proceeds  of  a  nurse  crop  at  the  same  time 
is  one  of  but  small  importance  relatively.  The  all  im- 
portant matter  is  to  secure  a  good  stand  of  the  grasses 
because  of  the  permanency  of  the  meadow.  As  in  lay- 
ing down  permanent  pastures,  nurse  crops,  when  used, 
should  in  many  instances  be  cut  early  to  mulch  the  land, 
or  later  and  while  immature,  for  hay. 

While  the  quantities  of  seed  named  in  each  case  is 
in  the  main  correct,  it  is  only  intended  to  be  approxi- 
mately so,  which  may  be  said  of  the  quantities  of  seed 
specified  throughout  the  book.  Some  successful  grow- 
ers sow  much  larger  quantities  of  seed  than  those  named  ; 


418  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

especially,  when  laying  down  permanent  meadows,  and 
under  their  conditions,  it  is  the  proper  thing  to  do. 
They  are  favored  with  a  moist  climate  and  are  careful 
to  maintain  an  equilibrium  in  fertility,  and,  consequent- 
ly, the  soil  sustains  both  denseness  in  growth  and  vigor 
in  the  same;  hence,  the  yields  are  relatively  high  and 
the  quality  of  the  hay  is  fine ;  the  yields  would  be  quite 
as  large  probably,  though  considerably  less  seed  were 
sown,  but  the  quality  of  the  hay  would  riot  be  so  fine. 
But  to  sow  quantities  so  large  without  maintaining  a 
high  state  of  fertility,  would  mean  reduced  yields,  as 
the  food  supply  in  the  soil  would  be  inadequate  to  meet 
the  needs  of  so  many  plants.  To  sow  very  large  quan- 
tities of  seed  on  lands,  where  the  normal  supply  of 
moisture  is  low,  would  mean  more  or  less  of  failure, 
since  so  many  plants  would  be  unable  to  get  enough 
moisture  to  produce  strong  growth.  To  overstock 
meadow  lands  thus  is  akin  in  principle  to  overstocking 
pastures  with  animals  brought  to  graze  upon  them. 

Harvesting. — The  grasses  proper  are,  in  nearly  all  in- 
stances, cut  with  the  field  mower,  when  harvested  for 
hay.  The  same  is  true  of  clovers,  sorghums,  millets 
and  all  varieties  of  cow  peas  and  soy  beans.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  cut  them  thus  to  facilitate  curing.  When  seed 
is  wanted,  except  in  the  cases  of  sorghums,  cow  peas 
and  soy  beans,  the  binder  is  used.  The  sorghums,  when 
sown  broadcast,  are  sometimes  cut  with  the  mower  for 
autumn  feeding,  and  sometimes  with  the  binder;  when 
grown  in  drills  to  which  cultivation  has  been  given,  they 
are  now  more  commonly  harvested  with  the  corn  har- 
vester. The  best  machine  probably  for  harvesting  cow 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  419 

peas  for  any  use,  is  the  pea  harvester ;  seed  crops  of 
soy  beans  may  be  cut  with  the  binder. 

Nearly  all  the  small  cereal  grains  are  harvested  with 
the  binder,  when  cut  for  hay,  whether  grown  alone  or  in 
mixtures ;  when  thus  cut,  they  are  more  easily  handled 
and  with  less  labor,  while  being  cured,  stored  and  fed. 
But  when  harvesting  them,  the  sheaves  should  be  made 
small  and  tied  rather  loosely  to  facilitate  drying.  If 
bound  tightly,  more  or  less  mould  is  likely  to  appear  in 
the  sheaves  underneath  the  band  that  ties  them.  How- 
ever, when  those  cereals  grow  in  mixtures  and  are  much 
lodged  and  tangled,  it  will  usually  be  preferable  to  cut 
them  with  the  field  mower.  When  vetches  are  grown 
alone  for  hay,  they  can  be  best  harvested  with  the  pea 
harvester  but  may  be  cut  with  the  mower. 

The  proper  stage  at  which  to  cut  nearly  all  grass- 
plants  is  when  in  bloom,  a  little  prior  to  that  stage 
for  cattle,  especially  milch  cows  and  sheep,  and  for 
horses,  a  little  later  than  the  full  bloom  stage.  Grasses 
which  quickly  lose  in  palatability  when  nearing  matur- 
ity should  be  cut  when  rather  less  advanced  than  others, 
such  are  orchard  grass  and  western  rye;  others  again 
do  lose  much  when  cut  later  than  the  blossoming  stage, 
such  is  Eussian  brome.  The  clovers  should  be  cut  when 
in  full  bloom,  except  alfalfa,  which  is  best  cut  when 
coming  into  bloom.  The  best  time  to  cut  the  sor- 
ghums, grown  thickly  for  hay,  is  when  seed  is  in  the 
dough  stage;  when  two  cuttings  are  wanted  in  the  sea- 
son, it  must  be  cut  earlier;  the  difficulty  in  curing  it 
increases  with  earliness  in  the  stage  of  cutting.  The 
millets  are  ready  for  cutting,  when  all  the  heads  have 


420  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GKOW  THEM. 

appeared  and  when  those  first  out  are  beginning  to  as 
suine  a  yellowish  tint. 

Cow  peas  are  cut  for  hay,  when  pods  that  first  ap- 
peared, are  maturing.  Soy  beans  are  ready,  when  the 
pods  are  reasonably  well  filled  but  not  ripe,  though  for 
some  uses  they  are  cut  earlier. 

Oats  are  ready  for  being  cut  for  hay,  when  the  straw 
for  a  few  inches  below  the  head  and  for  the  same  above 
the  ground,  has  assumed  a  yellow  tint,  the  other  portion 
of  the  stalk  being  yet  green ;  or,  when  the  grain  is  full}' 
formed  and  in  the  milk  stage,  but  not  yet  advanced 
in  the  dough  stage.  Wheat  should  be  cut  at  a  stage 
of  development  a  little  earlier,  lest  the  straw  becomes 
too  woody.  Barley  is  cut  a  little  short  of  the  milk  stage 
or  the  beards  will  stiffen  too  much.  Bye,  to  prevent 
undue  woodiness  and  want  of  palatability,  is  better  cut 
when  coming  into  head.  Vetches  are  ready  to  make 
into  hay  when  nearly  all  the  flowers  have  been  succeeded 
by  pods,  but  while  the  crop  is  not  yet  ripe. 

Where  large  areas  are  to  be  harvested,  it  may  not  be 
possible  to  cut  the  entire  crop  at  the  most  suitable  stage 
for  harvesting.  Something  will  probably  be  sacrificed 
from  cutting  a  part  of  the  crop  too  early  or  too  late; 
of  the  two  evils,  the  former  is  usually  the  lesser,  hence 
the  wisdom  in  such  instances  of  beginning  to  harvest 
early.  Such  action  is  further  supported  by  the  general 
principle,  that  it  is  advantageous  to  be  forehanded  with 
work. 

Curing  Hay. — When  curing  hay  of  any  kind,  the 
aim  should  be  to  expose  it  no  more  than  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  sun,  as  palatability  decreases  with  in- 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  421 

crease  in  bleaching;  to  protect  it,  as  much  as  possible, 
from  rain  and  dews,  which  take  from  it  aroma  and  cer- 
tain other  properties,  in  proportion,  as  these  are  pres- 
ent; and  to  cure  it  to  the  greatest  extent  practicable 
through  the  agency  of  air  and  wind,  as  such  curing 
favors  the  retention  of  the  natural  color.  Hay  that  is 
over  sun-cured,  not  only  loses  in  palatability  and  in 
many  instances  many  of  the  leaves,  but  it  loses  unduly  in 
weight.  Hay,  exposed  to  excessive  rains,  especially 
when  from  leguminous  plants,  soon  becomes  practically 
valueless  for  food.  On  the  other  hand,  hay  properly 
cured  chiefly  through  the  agency  of  air  and  wind  pre- 
serves the  green  color,  the  aroma,  the  palatability,  the 
weight  and  the  nutrition  to  the  greatest  extent  to  which 
it  is  possible  to  secure  these. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  apparent  that  to 
secure  these  results  in  the  most  perfect  form,  hay  must 
be  cured  to  the  greatest  extent  possible,  in  cocks  rather 
than  while  spread  over  the  ground  exposed  to  sunshine ; 
or  in  winrows  where  much  more  of  the  surface  is  ex- 
posed than  in  cocks.  There  is  also  the  additional  haz- 
ard, that  if  rain  falls  while  the  hay  is  in  winrows,  the 
loss  from  such  exposure  is  usually  much  greater  than 
when  it  is  in  cocks;  thje  relative  loss  from  clovers  and 
other  legumes  being  thus  exposed  is  greater  than  the 
loss  from  the  grasses  proper.  The  more  nearly  cured 
the  hay  is,  when  exposed  to  rain  or  dew,  the  greater  the 
relative  injury  that  conies  to  it  from  such  exposure. 
When  mixed  grains  are  rained  on,  while  they  lie  upon 
the  ground,  where  the  mower  left  them,  the  further  in- 
jury follows  that  they  are  more  or  less  covered  with 


422  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

particles  of  soil.  The  same  is  true  of  such  crops  as 
cow  peas  or  soy  beans.  The  wisdom,  therefore,  of  get- 
ting mown  hay  into  well  put  up  cocks,  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble after  it  has  been  mown,  is  clearly  apparent. 

Notwithstanding  th^t  the  very  best  hay  is  thus  made, 
much  good  hay  is  made  by  curing  it  in  the  winrow  or 
in  bunches,  made  from  the  winrow  by  the  aid  of  the 
horserake.  In  fact  more  hay  is  cured  by  this  process, 
than  by  the  other  and  in  many  instances  the  practice 
is  not  only  justifiable  but  commendable;  it  is  not  only 
labor  saving  but  enables  the  haymaker  to  do  the  work 
so  much  more  quickly  that  the  hazards  from  losses  of 
exposure  to  rain  and  from  the  overrnaturing  of  a  portion 
of  the  crop  are  lessened :  the  cost  of  harvesting  is  very 
materially  reduced.  The  time  and  labor  called  for  in 
putting  hay  into  cocks  are  no  more  than  would  be  re- 
quired to  put  it  on  wagons  ready  for  removal ;  when 
placed  in  cocks,  the  hay  cannot  be  put  upon  wagons  by 
the  hay  loader,  as  it  can  when  made  in  wirirows.  The 
loss  of  quality  in  the  hay,  therefore,  by  this  mode  of 
curing  may  be  more  than  made  up  in  the  benefits  accru- 
ing as  stated  above. 

It  is  relatively  more  important  that  clovers  and  other 
leguminous  hay  plants  be  cured  in  cocks  than  that  the 
grasses  proper  be  cured  thus;  since  when  cured  other- 
wise, they  lose  more  leaves,  part  with  more  of  their 
aroma,  take  much  more  injury  from  rain  and  dew; 
when  thus  cured,  the  danger  from  over  fermentation  in 
the  mow  is  also  lessened.  The  practice,  therefore,  which 
aims  to  cure  these  in  the  cock  is  to  be  commended,  un- 
less hi  time  of  settled  harvest  weather  or  in  rainless 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  423 

harvest  climates.  When  harvesting  clovers  and  other 
legumes,  the  method  of  procedure  would,  in  outline,  be 
as  follows:  Cut  with  the  mower  as  soon  as  the  dew 
has  lifted.  When  the  crop  has  wilted  somewhat,  run 
the  tedder  over  the  mown  hay  and  probably  a  second 
time,  with  an  interval  of  a  few  hours  between.  The 
mower  leaves  the  crop  lying  closely  on  the  ground  as 
the  horses  and  mower  pass  over  all  the  cut  portion. 
The  tedder  tosses  it  into  the  air  and  in  such  a  way  that 
when  it  falls  down  atopsy  turvy,"  it  lies  more  loosely 
over  the  ground,  so  that  the  air,  stirring  and  passing 
through  it,  greatly  facilitates  quick  curing.  It  is  then 
raked  with  the  horserake,  as  soon  as  the  rake  will  draw 
it  easily  and  cleanly  into  winrows ;  when  the  rake  will 
not  do  this  satisfactorily,  it  is  too  green  to  be  raked. 
It  should  be  put  into  cocks  '  as  soon  as  raked ;  these 
should  be  small  or  large  according  to  the  degree  of  cur- 
ing in  the  hay.  The  higher  and  narrower  they  are, 
compatible  with  firmness,  the  more  symmetrical  they 
are ;  and  the  more  carefully  they  are  combed  down 
around  the  sides,  the  more  quickly  they  will  cure  and 
the  better  they  will  turn  rain.  One  well  used  to  such 
work  will  put  the  hay  into  such  cocks  quickly;  while 
the  unskilled  and  careless  may  spend  their  time  to  little 
purpose  by  doing  the  work  slowly  and  in  a  slovenly  man- 
ner. 

The  length  of  time  between  the  cutting  of  legumes 
and  getting  them  put  into  cocks  varies  with  the  weather 
and  the  maturity  in  the  hay.  Frequently  these  may  be 
made  the  same  day  the  crop  is  cut ;  at  other  times,  not 
until  the  second  day ;  and  in  very  bad  weather,  not  until 


424  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

the  third  day.  The  length  of  time  that  the  hay  should 
remain  in  the  cocks  will  depend  chiefly  on  the  weather, 
but  usually  it  remains  thus  for  two  or  three  days. 
While  in  the  cocks,  it  "sweats"  more  or  less  which  means 
that  it  ferments  slightly  and,  as  a  result,  is  less  liable 
to  ferment  excessively  in  the  mow.  No  time  should 
be  lost  in  storing  hay  as  soon  as  it  is  ready. 

This  may  be  determined  by  taking  a  wisp  of  hay 
from  within  the  heap  and  twisting  it  in  the  hands. 
If  no  moisture  exudes,  the  hay  is  ready  to  store.  An- 
other method  of  judging  is  by  the  comparative  weight 
of  the  hay  in  being  handled,  which  can  be  easily  judged 
by  a  skilled  hand.  Before  drawing  the  hay  for  storage, 
it  is  usual  to  spread  out  the  cocks,  more  or  less,  for  ex- 
posure to  the  sunlight  for  a  few  hours,  before  drawing 
them  and  more  especially  the  parts  of  the  same  near- 
est to  the  ground.  This  should  not  be  done  much  in 
advance  of  the  storing,  in  showery  weather. 

Cow  peas  and  soy  beans  are  frequently  left  longer  on 
the  ground,  before  putting  them  up  in  cocks,  especially 
the  former,  since  they  cure  but  slowly.  The  cocks  are 
made  small  and  narrow  in  proportion  to  the  height  to 
facilitate  drying  out.  They  too  are  frequently  turned 
over,  more  or  less,  before  they  are  drawn,  to  secure  in 
them  quicker  and  more  thorough  drying.  In  some  in- 
stances, they  are  stacked  soon  after  being  cut.  The 
procedure  is,  in  substance,  as  follows :  Poles  are  plant- 
ed in  the  ground  to  the  height  of  about  9  feet  and  one 
foot  into  the  ground.  One  pair  of  strips  of  wood  is 
fastened  to  the  stack  pole  at  right  angles  to  each  other 
arid  one  foot  from  the  ground.  These  are  laden  with 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  425 

pea  hay.  A  second  pair  is  in  due  time  placed  3  feet 
from  the  ground  and  similarly  laden.  A  third  pair  is 
placed  6  feet  from  the  ground,  and  likewise  laden  to  the 
top  of  the  pole.  These  little  stacks,  not  more  than  6 
feet  across,  are  covered  with  crab  grass.  This  is  only 
one  of  many  devices,  used  in  the  curing  of  cow  peas. 

Caps  may  advantageously  be  used  in  curing  clover 
hay,  in  showery  weather,  when  the  quantities  to  be  cured 
are  not  large.  They  may  be  made  of  strong  cotton  cloth, 
also  of  other  material,  about  4^  feet  square,  with  pegs 
attached  to  the  corners  or  some  kind  of  weight,  as  a 
small  stone  sewed  in  each  corner.  When  in  use,  they 
are  spread  over  the  cocks,  and  the  pegs  are  fastened 
into  the  hay  at  the  sides  of  the  cocks  or  into  the  ground. 
One  work-hand  should  apply  them  as  fast  as  two  put 
up  the  hay.  When  not  in  use,  they  should  be  carefully 
laid  away  and,  if  made  of  good  material,  should  last  for 
as  many  as  a  score  of  years.  In  time  of  heavy  rainfall, 
however,  they  fail  to  preserve  the  bottom  of  the  cock, 
from  serious  injury,  from  the  absorption  of  moisture 
from  beneath. 

The  plan  of  storing  clover  and  cow  pea  hay,  as  soon 
as  a  little  wilted,  has  been  tried  and,  in  many  instances, 
with  success.  The  crop  is  cut  and  wilted  a  little  and  is 
then  drawn  and  tramped  down  firmly  into  mows.  Care 
is  taken  not  to  store  any  of  it  when  wet  with  dew  or  rain. 
The  principle  involved  is  much  the  same  as  in  making 
ensilage.  The  requisite  conditions,  however,  must  all 
be  carefully  observed  or  serious  loss  may  follow ;  hence, 
the  unskilled,  in  this  method  of  curing  hay,  should  thor- 
oughly post  themselves  regarding  all  the  details  requi- 
Grasses— 28. 


426  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

site  to  success  before  they  attempt  to  cure  it  thus.  In 
dry  weather,  the  advantage  from  curing  by  this  method 
is  to  be  questioned. 

The  grasses  cure  much  more  quickly  than  the  clovers. 
The  practice  is  common,  therefore,  of  drawing  them 
together  with  the  hay  rake,  after  the  tedder  has  gone 
over  them,  and  drawing  the  hay  from  the  winrows.  It 
is  lifted  or  may  be  lifted  from  these  with  the  hay  loader. 
To  facilitate  such  lifting,  the  winrows  should  be  small. 
The  duration  of  the  exposure  will  depend  upon  the 
kind  of  grass,  its  maturity  and  the  weather.  In  good 
weather,  it  can  usually  be  cut  one  day  and  stored  the 
next.  In  showery  weather,  what  is  cut  should  be  put 
up  in  cocks,  as  these  will  shed  rain  better  than  those 
composed  of  clover.  Millet  and  mixed  grains  are  some- 
times cured  in  winrows  and  sometimes  in  cocks ;  which 
method  should  be  followed  will  depend  upon  conditions. 
These  crops  take  more  injury  from  rain  than  many  of 
the  grasses  but  less  injury  than  clovers ;  hence,  in  show- 
ery weather,  they  should  be  cured  in  the  cock. 

Storing  Hay. — Hay  is  stored  in  the  mows  of  barns 
or  in  the  lofts  of  stables,  in  hay  sheds  or  in  stacks.  The 
aim  should  be,  on  the  part  of  those  who  feed  the  hay  on 
the  farm,  to  store  it  under  cover  to  the  greatest  extent 
practicable,  in  order  to  avoid  the  expense  of  handling 
a  second  time  before  it  is  fed  and  the  loss  from  the  shed- 
ing  of  leaves  and  heads,  which,  in  nearly  all  instances, 
accompanies  the  second  handling  of  hay.  In  handling 
cow  pea,  soy  bean  and  clover  hay,  this  loss  is  very  much 
greater,  than  in  handling  hay  from  grasses.  Further- 
more, the  aim  should  be  to  store  it  in  such  proximity 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  427 

to  the  place  of  feeding,  that  it  will  be  conveyed  to  the 
animals  which  feed  upon  it  with  the  least  possible 
amount  of  labor. 

When  stored  in  large  quantities  in  barns,  stables  or 
indeed  anywhere,  it  is  lifted  from  the  load  and  dumped 
in  the  mow,  hay  shed  or  stack,  as  the  case  may  be,  by 
means  of  horse-forks  or,  what  is  usually  better,  slings 
where  they  can  be  used.  With  the  latter,  the  entire 
load  may  be  taken  up  and  put  in  place  by  means  of  two 
or  three  separate  draughts.  When  taken  up  with  the 
horse-fork,  more  or  less  hay  falls  back  again  with  each 
draught  and  has  to  be  relifted.  When  lifted  by  either 
method,  careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the  even 
and  systematic  distribution  of -the  hay  in  the  mow,  that 
it  may  pack  evenly  and  be  taken  out  again  in  the  regular 
way.  To  accomplish  this  calls  for  great  diligence  and 
fidelity  on  the  part  of  those  who  work  in  the  warm  mows, 
when  hay  is  being  stored  rapidly. 

Hay  sheds  are  usually  oblong  in  shape  and  may  be 
of  any  size  desired.  They  are  usually  made  by  setting 
upright  posts  in  the  ground  and  putting  plates  on  them 
and  on  these  rafters  sustaining  a  ridge  roof.  Suspended 
from  the  ridge  a  track  may  be  constructed,  if  desired, 
to  carry  a  fork  or  sling  in  storing  the  hay.  These  are 
usually  open  on  every  side.  Where  hay  has  to  be  han- 
dled a  second  time,  these  sheds  may  be  made  to  render 
excellent  service,  since  they  may  be  erected  in  the  midst 
of  a  permanent  meadow  and  thus  furnish  safe  protec- 
tion for  the  hay  which  is  stored  with  the  least  possible 
loss  of  time  in  conveying  it  to  the  place  of  storage. 

When  stacking  hay,  poles  should  first  be  laid  under- 


428  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

neath  and  only  sufficiently  near  to  sustain  other  poles 
laid  across  them;  upon  this,  a  covering  of  old  straw 
should  be  laid.  When  the  stack  rests  on  the  ground, 
the  hay  at  the  bottom  of  the  stack  will  be  injured  from 
one  to  two  feet  from  the  ground,  according  to  the  loca- 
tion and  climate,  by  imbibing  moisture  from  the  earth. 

When  building  stacks,  whether  of  the  long  or  round 
form,  it  is  greatly  important  that  the  centre  shall  be 
kept  considerably  higher  from  the  ground  upward  than 
the  sides,  otherwise  water  will  seep  in  from  the  sides 
and  penetrate  downward.  It  is  also  greatly  important 
that  the  stack  shall  be  kept  evenly  tramped,  that  the 
settling  may  be  even.  Where  the  settling  of  the  stack 
is  even  everywhere  and  a  little  sloping  downward  all 
the  way  from  the  centre  to  the  outer  edges,  it  would  not 
be  easy  for  any  considerable  quantity  of  water  to  pene- 
trate a  stack  even  though  topped  out  only  reasonably 
well. 

Marsh  grass  where  it  can  be  obtained  furnishes  the 
best  grass  covering  for  stacks.  It  is  most  suitably  put 
on  in  the  green  form  and  combed  down  all  around  with 
a  rake  to  straighten  the  stems  downward.  Blue  grass, 
such  as  obtained  in  fence  corners,  is  also  good,  since 
it  is  not  easily  penetrated  by  rain.  Small  weights 
should  be  suspended  to  wires  or  ropes,  running  over 
the  ridge  or  crown  of  the  stack  to  hold  the  covering  in 
place.  Sometimes  stacks  are  covered  with  cloth  such  as 
is  used  in  making  tents  or  of  any  material  that  will 
turn  rain  and  that  is  not  too  costly. 

When  clover,  cow  peas  or  vetches  are  stacked  in  a 
climate  of  much  rainfall,  unless  the  tops  of  the  stacks 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  429 

are  carefully  protected,  there  will  be  much  loss.  The 
aim  should  be,  therefore,  to  put  these  crops  under  cover, 
when  possible,  and  to  protect  the  stacks  carefully  where 
this  cannot  be  done. 

What  has  been  said  about  storing  the  grasses  proper 
will  apply  about  equally  to  mixed  grains,  cut  with  the 
mowers,  and  to  millets  except  that  these  are  more  easily 
injured  by  rain.  But  rain  does  not  harm  them  as  much 
as  clovers.  Sorghum  hay  is  more  difficult  to  keep  and 
where  it  is  groAvn,  which  is  usually  in  rather  dry  cli- 
mates, is  frequently  stored  in  quite  small  stacks  from 
which  it  is  fed. 

In  large  ranches,  especially  in  the  West,  native  hay 
from  the  sloughs  and  alfalfa  from  irrigated  lands  are 
frequently  drawn  from  the  winrows  on  wide  sweeps, 
with  one  horse  attached  to  each  end.  These  load  by 
simply  driving  the  horses  for  a  short  distance,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  winrow.  The  load  thus  gathered  is 
drawn  over  the  ground  and  deposited  on  the  stacker, 
which  carries  it  up  to  the  stack.  Hay  is  rapidly  stored 
in  this  way,  but  such  methods  would  be  ill  adapted  to 
stacking  in  wet  climates,  as  they  would 'result  in  the 
spoiling  of  much  of  the  hay. 

It  is  the  practice  with  some  to  sow  about  a  peck  of 
coarse  common  salt  over  each  load  of  hay.  They  con- 
tend that  it  tends  to  preserve  hay,  stored  a  little  green, 
and  it  does  in  some  degree.  They  also  claim  that  it 
adds  to  the  palatability  of  the  hay  and  in  some  small 
degree  it  does.  Nevertheless,  when  the  hay  is  properly 
cured  and  stored,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  advantage  will 
cover  the  outlay  for  the  application  of  salt. 


430  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Grazing  Permanent  Meadows. — As  the  primary  ob- 
ject in  growing  and  maintaining  permanent  meadows 
is  to  secure  hay,  rather  than  pasture,  whatever  will  main- 
tain them  in  a  condition  to  produce  hay  is  of  paramount 
importance.  Pasture  should  be  sought  from  them  only, 
therefore,  to  remove  a  superabundance  of  covering,  such 
as  would  hinder  their  productiveness  and,  in  some  in- 
stances, their  existence  unless  they  are  grazed.  This 
will  mean,  therefore,  (1)  that  the  grazing  of  hay  plants 
should  not  be  done  at  any  season  of  the  year,  if  such 
grazing  would  endanger  the  life,  vitality  or  productive- 
ness of  the  plants;  (2)  that,  if  admissible,  at  certain 
times,  it  should  never  be  done  at  such  times  as  it  may 
work  harm ;  (3)  that  it  should  not  be  done  when  mowing 
will  answer  the  purpose  as  well  or  better. 

Some  meadow  plants  should  seldom  or  never  be  grazed 
while  being  grown  for  meadow.  Timothy  is  one  of 
these,  alfalfa  is  another,  and  Johnson  grass,  a  third. 
This  does  not  mean  that  these  plants  should  not  be  pas- 
tured at  all,  but  the  aim  should  be  to  avoid  pasturing 
them  to  the  greatest  extent  practicable.  Timothy  will 
sometimes  endure  winter  pasturing  very  well  and  remain 
productive,  as  in  bottom  lands  or  on  tide  lands  in  the 
Puget  Sound  region.  In  the  other  instances,  it  will 
produce  fair  crops  from  year  to  year,  if  never  grazed, 
while  if  grazed  closely  in  the  autumn,  the  yields  will 
be  reduced  fully  50  per  cent ;  the  same  is  true  of  alfalfa  ; 
it  is  also  true  of  Johnson  grass,  that  it  may  seldom  be 
pastured  closely  with  injury.  It  is  almost  certain  that 
where  alfalfa  and  timothy  will  endure  pasturing  in  the 
autumn  and  winter,  the  returns  would  be  greater  if 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  431 

these  crops  were  not  so  pastured.  While  it  may  be  ad- 
missible to  pasture  meadows  in  the  autumn,  where  cli1 
mates  are  mild,  where  the  aftermath  is  so  strong  that  it 
threatens  to,  at  least,  partially  smother  the  plants  and 
the  weather  is  so  moist  that  it  could  not  be  cured,  it  is 
never  admissible  to  graze  aftermath  so  closely  that  it  will 
not  protect  sufficiently  the  roots  of  the  plants  in  winter. 
It  may  be  admissible  to  graze  the  same  kinds  of  meadow 
much  more  closely  in  the  autumn  and  winter  in  mild  cli- 
mates, than  in  those  that  are  cold.  In  fact,  it  may  be 
death  to  some  meadow  plants  to  graze  them  in  winter 
at  all  in  cold  climates;  such  is  alfalfa.  Again  where 
snowfall  is  abundant,  and  almost  certain,  grazing  rank 
meadow  plants  in  the  late  autumn  may  prove  helpful, 
whereas  similar  grazing  of  the  same  kind  of  plants, 
when  they  are  almost  certain  to  be  exposed,  would  be 
about  sure  death  to  them. 

Should  aftermath  or  rowen  be  abundant,  the  mower 
will  remove  it  more  evenly  than  grazing  and  it  may  be 
cut  high  purposely,  the  better  to  afford  winter  protec- 
tion. In  such  instances,  mowing  would  be  preferable 
to  grazing. 

Ordinarily  the  aim  should  be  to  have  permanent 
meadows  go  into  the  winter  season,  with  enough  of  a 
covering  to  protect  them  sufficiently  against  adverse 
winter  weather,  such  as  may  be  expected  in  the  locality. 
Some  plants  under  certain  conditions  will  not  provide 
more  aftermath,  from  year  to  year,  than  is  necessary 
to  form  such  a  covering.  When  they  do  not,  they  should 
never  be  pastured,  while  in  permanent  meadow.  But 
the  richness  of  the  ground,  and  the  character  of  the 


432  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

manuring^  and  the  influence  which  these  exercise  on 
production  will  make  pasturing  meadows  admissible 
under  some  conditions,  where  under  other  conditions, 
it  would  not  be  at  all  admissible. 

Fertilizing  and  Renewing. — The  question  of  fertiliz- 
ing permanent  meadows  has,  in  most  instances,  a  close 
relation  to  their  productiveness.  Some  of  these,  as  al- 
falfa meadows  for  instance,  will,  in  certain  locations, 
produce  well  for  many  years  without  any  applied  fer- 
tilizers. The  plants  are,  in  a  sense,  the  scavengers  of 
the  fertility  they  require  from  the  soil  and  air.  When 
these  fail,  they  usually  fail  because  other  grasses  or 
weeds  come  in  and  crowd  the  plants.  Again,  other 
plants  that  cannot  obtain  nitrogen  from  the  air  will 
grow  for  many  years  and  produce  abundantly  without 
applied  fertilizers ;  such  are  certain  grasses  grown  on 
tide  lands.  Yet  again,  the  same  plants,  grown  under 
other  conditions,  would  not  produce  hay  crops  vigorously 
for  two  years  in  succession  without  being  dressed  with 
fertilizer. 

If  farmyard  manure  is  applied,  it  should  be  in  a  well 
reduced  form  and  is  preferably  applied  in  the  autumn 
and  should  be  evenly  spread.  Fresh  manure  would  be 
objectionable  because  of  the  weed  seeds  in  it  and  be- 
cause of  the  extent  to  which  the  unreduced  portions 
would  rake  up  in  the  hay. 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  peculiarly  suitable  for  ap- 
plying on  permanent  meadows  from  year  to  year.  On 
these,  there  is  a  place  in  one  locality  or  another  for  the 
application  of  nearly  every  kind  of  useful  commercial 
fertilizer  brought  ..into  the  market.  But  which  should 


MEADOWS  AND  MAKING  HAY.  433 

be  applied  alone  or  in  combinations,  the  amount  to  apply 
and  the  quantities  in  which  they  should  be  applied,  can 
only  be  determined  by  the  attendant  conditions  in  each 
instance.  In  a  work  such  as  this  generalizing  on  such 
a  subject  is  all  that  would  be  prudent  or  even  possible 
to  do. 

The  needs  of  permanent  meadows  seldom  call  for  the 
application  of  other  kinds  of  plant  food  than  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  ;  some  need  only  one  of  these, 
some  want  two  and  some  want  all  three.  As  to  the 
chief  of  the  forms  in  which  they  usually  come  into  the 
market,  see  p.  393.  It  is  seldom  that  more  than  800 
pounds  of  commercial  fertilizer  are  applied  on  perma- 
nent meadow  lands  in  one  year,  and  more  frequently 
less  than  one-half  or  one-third  the  amount  is  applied. 
In  the  East  and  South,  it  is,  of  course,  much  more  es- 
sential to  apply  these  than  in  the  West  and  North.  For 
many  situations,  equal  parts  by  weight  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  finely  ground  bone,  phosphatic  rock  and  muriate 
of  potash,  serve  a  good  end ;  more  frequently  in  purely 
grass  meadows,  a  large  portion  of  nitrogen  or  phosphate 
is  wanted,  in  some  instances,  more  of  one  of  these  than 
of  the  other  two  combined.  The  phosphate  and  potash 
are  probably  best  applied  in  the  autumn  and  a  part  of 
the  nitrogen  in  the  spring  and  the  remainder  soon  after 
the  hay  is  cut.  The  object  of  the  second  dressing  is  to 
stimulate  the  grass  to, produce  another  cutting.  In  or- 
der to  make  large  dressings  of  fertilizer  profitable,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  good  thick  stand  of  the  grasses, 
otherwise  much  of  the  strength  of  the  fertilizer  may  go 
toward  sustaining  weeds. 


434  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

Permanent  meadows  seldom  require  renewing,  when 
properly  fertilized.  Alfalfa,  however,  sometimes  be- 
comes weedy ;  when  it  does,  disking  in  early  fall  or  iu 
spring,  according  to  locality,  sowing  more  seed,  and  then 
harrowing  are  very  frequently  followed  by  renewal.  In 
some  instances,  as  on  sandy  or  gravelly  soils,  the  grasses 
may  fail  in  certain  parts.  When  they  do,  disk  them  in 
those  parts,  sow  more  seed  at  the  best  season  of  the  year 
for  sowing  it,  and  dress  with  fine  manure.  Treat  simi- 
larly spots  that  may  have  winter  killed  because  of  ice. 
Yet  again,  when  ploughing  and  harrowing  may  be  neces- 
sary, as  in  the  cases  of  Russian  brome  and  Bermuda 
grass,  renew  these  in  that  way  as  often  as  necessary. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

PASTURES  ON  THE  RANGE. 

The  pastures  of  the  western  ranges  are  of  immense 
extent,  as  are  also  those  of  western  Canada.  Roughly 
speaking,  it  would  be  correct  to  say  that  they  embrace 
considerably  more  than  one-third  of  the  entire  surface 
of  the  United  States  and  even  a  larger  proportion  of 
the  northwestern  provinces  of  Canada. 

The  Range  States. — The  distinctive  range  states  in- 
clude Montana,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  'New  Mexico,  Ari- 
zona, Utah,  Nevada  and  Idaho.  The  range  country 
also  includes  western  North  and  South  Dakota  and  the 
western  portions  of  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma  and 
Texas,  also  the  eastern  portions  of  California,  Ore- 
gon and  Washington.  The  range  pastures  cover  from 
about  one-third  to  two-thirds  of  the  states  named,  as 
being  partly  range,  the  other  portions  being  arable. 

The  Range  Country  Described. — This  region  is  cov- 
ered with  immense  areas  of  mountains,  table  land  and 
plain,  with  a  considerable  area  classed  as  valley  land 
beside  the  streams.  The  plains,  which  lie  in  great  part 
eastward  from  the  mountains  are  destitute  of  trees, 
except  beside  the  streams  which  flow  through  them 
and  which  are  fed  by  the  melting  snows  upon  the  moun- 
tains. They  are  usually,  but  not  always  sufficiently 
even  in  surface,  to  admit  of  cultivating  the  soil  and 


436  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

growing  crops  upon  it.  Over  the  greater  portion  of 
this  area,  these  cannot  be  grown  because  of  the  limited 
precipitation,  which  characterizes  all  this  region.  It 
varies  from  12  to  15  inches  per  annum  downward  to 
almost  nothing.  This  entire  area  is  covered  with  short 
grasses,  which  make  their  growth  soon  after  the  pre- 
cipitation for  the  season  comes,  and  then  cure  where 
they  grow,  in  which  condition  they  furnish  excellent 
winter  grazing,  when  present  in  sufficient  quantity. 

Between  the  most  easterly  and  westerly  ranges  of  the 
Eocky  mountains  are  vast  stretches  of  mountains,  table 
lands  or  bench  lands  as  they  are  more  frequently  called, 
and  plains.  These  also  are  covered,  more  or  less,  with 
grasses,  being  dense  or  thin  according  to  the  measure 
of  the  precipitation  and  the  extent  to  which  sand,  sta- 
tionary or  shifting  is  present;  to  proximity  to  seep- 
age waters  from  the  mountains  and  to  the  heat  of  the 
summer  climate.  Northward  in  this  area,  the  precipi- 
tation is  usually  more  than  southward,  and  the  summer 
heat  is  less  intense;  consequently,  the  grazing  is  usu- 
ally more  abundant.  Grass  production  decreases  with 
the  abundance  of  sand  or  gravel,  and  where  the  sands 
shift,  it  is 'virtually  absent. 

But  where  seepage  waters  abound  and  come  near 
the  surface,  grass  production  is  abundant.  The 
sides  of  the  mountains  furnish  much  grazing  until 
trees  clothe  them,  a  condition  which  increasingly  pre- 
vails with  increasing  altitudes,  until  the  upward  limit  of 
tree  growth  is  reached,  beyond  which  are  realms  of 
rock  and  snow.  The  production  of  this  region  is  not 
unlike  that  of  the  plains  east  of  the  mountains,  but 


PASTURES   ON   THE   RANGE.  437 

especially  southward,  it  is  less  abundant,  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  country  being  destitute  of  vegetation  or 
producing  only  cactus  plants  and  sage  brush,  neither  of 
which  are  valuable  as  food. 

Soils  of  the  Range  Country. — The  soil  in  the  larger 
portion  of  the  range  country  is  abundantly  supplied 
with  plant  food.  Much  of  it  is  possessed  of  amazing 
productive  power  could  it  only  be  supplied  with  moist- 
ure. The  secret  of  this  fertility  lies  chiefly  in  its 
origin.  Much  of  it  has  been  made  by  volcanic  action. 
But  it  has  also  been  made  more  fertile,  through  the 
accumulation  of  vegetable  matter,  which  decayed  upon 
its  surface  through  long  ages,  of  which  it  lost  but 
little  from  precipitation,  washing  over  its  surface  or 
reaching  down  into  the  subsoil.  To  the  summit  of 
the  mountains,  nearly  all  the  soil  is  fertile ;  even  the 
shifting  of  sands  can  be  made  to  produce  liberally, 
if  kept  wet  by  fertilizing  waters.  Northward,  sand 
is  not  nearly  so  much  in  evidence  as  southward.  In 
some  parts,  are  considerable  areas,  so  strongly  impreg- 
nated with  alkali  that  nothing  will  grow  on  them,  es- 
pecially is  this  true  of  the  regions  where  salt  lakes 
abound. 

Climate  of  the  Range  Country.— The  climate  in 
much  of  the  range  country  is  dry;  more  dry  usually 
east  of  the  eastern  range  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  than 
elevated  portions.  The  snow-fall  is  usually  light  also, 
north;  and  more  dry  in  the  lower  valleys,  than  on  the 
elevated  portions.  The  snow  fall  is  usually  light  also, 
but  much  of  the  range  country  is  exposed  to  occasional 
winter  blizzards,  in  some  instances  of  great  severity, 


438  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

and  which  bring  much  suffering  to  the  herds  and 
flocks,  which  frequently  ends  in  great  financial  losses. 
In  some  instances,  these  blizzards  come  quite  late  in 
spring,  as  late  as  May  in  Montana.  At  such  times, 
sheep  and  lambs  sometimes  perish  in  large  numbers. 
The  temperature  of  the  range  country  is  considerably 
milder  in  winter,  than  corresponding  latitudes  east- 
ward, owing  doubtless  to  the  influence  of  the  Pacific. 
With  sufficiently  plentiful  surplus  of  grass,  horses  and 
cattle  could  winter  safely  on  the  pastures  in  all  the 
range  country,  were  it  not  for  two  influences,  which, 
when  they  act  in  conjunction,  make  the  wintering  of 
stock,  more  or  less  hazardous.  These  are  snow-fall, 
partially  melted  with  "chinook  winds,"  and  then  sud- 
denly coated  with  a  crust  of  ice,  caused  by  rapidly 
falling  and  low  temperatures.  These  "chinooks"  are 
warm  winds,  which  blow  at  irregular  and  not  infre- 
quent intervals.  Were  it  not  for  these,  no  live  stock 
could  graze  north  in  winter.  The  pastures  are  thus 
rendered  inaccessible,  insomuch  that  if  low  tempera- 
tures prevail  for  any  considerable  period  of  time,  the 
animals  cannot  graze  and  so  literally  starve.  When 
the  weather  immediately  following  is  of  unusual  se- 
verity, as  sometimes  happens,  particularly  in  ranges 
northward,  they  perish  in  great  numbers.  Driven  be- 
fore the  winds,  they  seek  the  shelter  of  willows  and 
other  bushes  by  the  streams  and  die  slowly  from  cold 
and  hunger.  The  sufferings  of  live  stock,  thus  ex- 
posed and  left  to  die  a  lingering  and  cruel  death,  forms 
one  of  the  darkest  chapters  in  the  industrial  history 
of  this  country.  These  cold  winters  only  come  occa- 


PASTURES  ON  THE  RANGE.  439 

sionally  but  they  come  with  sufficient  frequency  to  man- 
ifest the  wisdom  of  furnishing  food  supplies  to  meet 
such  exigencies. 

Grazing  on  the  Open  Range. — Until  within  a  com- 
paratively recent  period,  the  range  country  was  al- 
most entirely  public  domain.  Even  now  the  same  may 
be  said  of  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  it.  Every 
citizen,  therefore,  had  an  equal  right  to  graze  live 
stock  on  the  range;  when  it  was -comparatively  unoccu- 
pied, the  business  proved  highly  remunerative.  This 
led  to  so  great  an  increase  in  the  number  of  those  who 
engaged  in  ranching,  that  in  time  the  ranges  became 
overstocked  with  results  as  stated  later.  (See  p.  445.) 
A  common  practice  at  the  first  was  to  purchase  chiefly 
young  store  stock  and  animals  for  breeding;  to  brand 
them;  and  to  turn  them  out  at  large  on  the  ranges. 
Horses  and:  cattle  were  managed  thus  but,  of  course, 
sheep  had  to  be  accompanied  by  a  herder.  The  many 
losses,  attendant  upon  this  method  of  ranching,  from 
various  causes,  have  led  to  a  modification  of  the  sys- 
tem of  ranching,  somewhat  as  follows :  Individuals 
took  up  claims  in  some  favored  spot,  where  water  and 
shelter  were  obtainable,  and  where  wild  hay  could  be 
obtained  on  the  low  lands,  or  tame  hay,  grown  usually 
through  the  aid  of  irrigation.  Steadings  were  built 
and  live  stock  were  introduced,  usually  in  a  small  way 
at  first,  and  these  were  bred  from,  and  the  animals 
sold  when  ready,  or  shipped  to  the  eastern  markets. 
The  stock  were  grazed  in  summer  upon  the  adjoining 
ranges,  sometimes  owned  privately  but  more  frequently 
public  domain.  Seldom  were  they  allowed  to  stray 


440  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

away  far  enough  to  become  lost,  and  in  winter  when 
necessary,  they  were  fed  hay,  provided  for  them  in  sum- 
mer. This  method  of  ranching  is  rapidly  superseding 
the  open  range  system,  and  in  time  will  probably  super- 
sede it  entirely. 

Carrying  Capacity  of  Western  Ranges. — When  the 
ranges  were  first  grazed  by  domestic  animals,  their  car- 
rying capacity  was  considerably  more  than  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  The  grazing  was  much  more  abundant  then 
than  now  on  the  greater  portion  of  the  range.  The 
grasses  or  many  of  them  were  famed,  and  justly  so, 
for  their  nutrition.  But  they  were  short  and  thin 
in  proportion  as  moisture  was"  wanting.  In  places 
only  where  moisture  was  plentiful  was  there  a  stiff 
turf  formed.  Upon  much  of  the  range,  the  grass 
plants  grew  independently,  as  it  were,  without  any 
crowding  and  the  relative  number  of  the  plants  de- 
creased with  increasing  hardness  of  conditions,  until 
in  some  localities  but  few  plants  appeared  among  the 
sage  bushes,  and  finally  that  stage  was  reached  in  places, 
where  the  country  was  desert.  At  no  time  probably 
could  one  cattle  beast  be  sustained  for  a  year  on  less 
than  10  acres  on  an  average,  from  produce  grown  upon 
the  untilled  range.  At  the  present  time,  the  carrying 
power  of  the  range  is  much  less  than  it  was  years  ago. 
But  the  change  in  ranching  referred  to,  is  likely  to 
modify  this  process  and  in  the  end  greatly  increase 
the  carrying  power  of  the  range. 

The  Range  Country  in  Canada. — It  would  not  be  cor- 
rect to  say  of  any  province  in  Canada  that  it  is  en- 
tirely a  range  country,  as  in  all  the  provinces  where 


PASTURES  ON  THE  RANGE.  441 

ranges  exist,  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  land  will 
grow  crops  under  suitable  cultivation.  The  range  coun- 
try occupies  parts  of  Assiniboia,  Alberta,  Saskatche- 
wan, Athabasca,  and  British  Columbia.  The  relative 
area  is  probably  greater  in  Assiniboia  and  Alberta  than 
in  any  of  the  other  provinces  of  Canada.  The  ranges 
are  on  the  whole  more  productive  than  the  average  of 
the  American  ranges,  and  since  the  summer  climate 
is  cooler  they  are  covered  with  a  more  abundant  turf. 
Moreover,  they  are  less  injured  through  overgrazing  as 
they  are  newer.  The  ranchmen,  profiting  by  Ameri- 
can experience,  came  early  to  an  understanding  as  to 
which  parts  should  be  grazed  by  sheep  and  which  by 
cattle  and  this  also  has  had  the  effect  of  protecting  the 
ranges,  as  well  as  preventing  feuds  between  sheep  and 
cattle  owners  and  their  herdsmen.  As  on  the  ranges 
in  American  states  northward,  some  food  is  usually 
needed  in  winter;  strange  to  say  the  mean  winter  tem- 
peratures on  the  Canadian  ranges  of  Assiniboia  and 
Alberta,  especially  the  latter,  are  not  so  low  as  those 
of  Montana  and  Dakota,  although  further  north.  The 
explanation  is  found  in  the  greater  extent  to  which 
"chinooks"  prevail  in  winter.  Some  authorities  claim 
that  these  have  access  to  the  interior  through  the  lower 
elevation  of  the  mountains  east  of  Port  Simpson. 

•GRASSES  FAILING  ON  THE  WESTERN  RANGES. 

On  many  portions  of  the  range,  the  grasses  have 
failed  to  such  an  extent  that,  as  previously  intimated, 
their  sustaining  capacity  has  been  much  reduced.  The 
Grasses  29. 


442  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

extent  of  such  reduction,  the  causes  that  have  led  to  it, 
and  the  necessity,  because  of  this,  for  a  change  in  the 
old-time  system  of  grazing,  will  now  be  discussed. 

The  Extent  to  which  Grasses  Have  Failed. — While 
the  carrying  capacity  of  the  range  has  been  much  re- 
duced in  the  aggregate,  this  reduction,  by  no  means,  ap- 
plies equally  to  all  parts  of  the  range.  On  such  por- 
tions of  it  as  are  possessed  of  a  clay  loam  soil,  and 
over  which  the  grasses  have  formed  a  reasonably  stiff 
turf,  the  sustaining  power  of  the  pastures  is  not  much 
reduced.  Much  of  the  range  country  in  the  northern 
states  and  also  in  Canada  is  of  this  class.  On  those 
areas,  however,  covered  with  soils,  volcanic  in  origin 
and  which  are  easily  disturbed  by  the  treading  of  live 
stock,  the  grasses  have,  in  many  places,  grown  thin 
gradually,  until  they  have  almost  or  entirely  disap- 
peared. Wide  areas  exist,  which  at  one  time  produced 
reasonably  good  pastures,  that  are  now  absolutely  bare. 
These  areas  are  chiefly  found  in  portions  of  the  central 
and  southern  range  states.  In  other  localities,  plants 
of  little  or  no  economic  value  have  taken  possession  of 
the  grazing  lands  in  a  greater  or  lesser  degree. 

There  has  also  been  a  shrinkage  in  the  producing  of 
what  has  been  termed  hay  meadow  lands,  from  which 
winter  food  supplies  have  been  gathered.  Through 
such  shrinkage,  the  carrying  power  of  the  range  has 
been  reduced  in  the  aggregate,  according  to  some  esti- 
mates looked  upon  as  conservative  to  the  extent  of  20 
to  30  per  cent. 

Causes  of  Failure  in  Range  Grasses. — Chief  among 
the  causes  that  have  led  to  reduction  in  the  producing 


PASTURES   ON  THE  RANGE.  443 

power  of  the  ranges  are  the  following:  1.  Injury 
from  close  grazing.  2.  Injury  from  the  treading  of 
animals  while  grazing.  3.  Injury  from  too  constant 
grazing. 

On  many  parts  of  the  range,  the  conditions  are  such 
that  under  the  most  favored  treatment,  the  grasses  have 
to  struggle  for  existence,  when  cropped  closely  because 
of  that  inseparable  relation  which  exists  between  top 
and  root  development.  The  shade  which  the  grasses 
provide  for  themselves,  when  undisturbed  is  removed, 
and  the  hot  sun  so  saps  away  the  moisture  that  more 
or  less  of  the  plants  succumb. 

Far  greater,  however,  is  the  injury  from  treading,  es- 
pecially is  this  true  of  soils,  which  readily  disinte- 
grate. The  treading  of  animals  upon  them  turns  them, 
more  or  less,  into  dust  and  the  plants  perish.  These 
results  follow  more  readily  and  certainly  from  the 
grazing  of  sheep,  than  from  the  grazing  of  cattle,  and 
they  are  intensified  with  increase  in  the  range  flocks. 
They  not  only  feed  closely  together,  but  they  are  con- 
stantly on  the  move.  When  they  huddle  together  in 
the  heat  of  the  day,  in  order  to  get  the  head  lowered 
into  the  shade,  furnished  by  the  bodies  of  their  fellows, 
they  still  keep  up  the  movement  of  the  feet.  In  those 
light  and  dry  soils,  the  grasses  are  thus  trodden  out  of 
existence.  Through  such  grazing  wide  stretches  of 
range  lands,  where  growth  at  the  best  was  almost  peril- 
ous, have  been  turned  for  the  time  being  into  deserts. 
The  sheep  has  been  characterized  as  the  animal  with 
the  golden  hoof  and  justly  so,  because  of  the  beneficial 
influence  which  it  has  ordinarily  on  pastures,  in  clean- 


444  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

ing,  enriching  and  improving  them  generally,  but  this 
is  not  true  of  sheep  in  certain  of  the  range  pastures. 
The  golden  hoof  in  these  is  turned  into  an  instrument 
of  destruction.  To  these  results,  however,  there  are 
exceptions  for,  on  some  portions  of  the  range,  judicious 
pasturing  with  sheep  is  beneficial  in  degree,  rather 
than  harmful.  Such  are  the  portions  of  the  range 
that  have  a  close  turf. 

But  the  injury  from  too  constant  and  unintermittent 
grazing  has  been  greater  than  from  too  close  grazing. 
Although  many  of  the  range  grasses  are  perennial,  they 
are  propagated  by  means  of  seed  only.  The  very  dry 
portions  of  the  range  are  ill-adapted  to  the  sustenance 
of  plants  that  increase  chiefly  by  means  of  creeping 
root-stocks.  With  these  the  number  of  the  plants  is 
too  great  for  each  one  to  get  enough  of  the  scant  sup- 
ply of  moisture  to  sustain  them.  The  fact  is  sigificant 
that  in  the  greater  portion  of  the  range  country,  the 
grasses  have  fibrous,  rather  than  creeping  roots.  They 
multiply  by  means  of  seed.  The  further  fact  is  sig- 
nificant that  these  are  free  producers  of  seed,  thus  ac- 
centuating the  fact  that  the  necessity  for  re-seeding  the 
ranges  is  ever  recurring,  where  the  productive  power 
of  the  grasses  is  to  be  maintained.  The  grama  grasses 
especially,  which  are  among  the  best  of  the  range  grass- 
es, are  free  producers  of  seed.  When  the  grazing  is 
constant  and  close,  seed  production  is  hindered  in  pro- 
portion as  these  influences  are  present.  Such  grazing 
has  done  more  harm  to  the  range  pastures  than  prob- 
ably all  other  influences  combined.  The  question  nat« 


PASTURES   ON  THE  RANGE.  445 

urally  arises  in  this  connection,  can  the  grasses  of  the 
range  be  renewed?  , 

RENEWING  THE  GRASSES  OF  THE  RANGES. 

It  is  very  evident  from  what  has  been  said,  first,  that 
the  sustaining  power  of  range  pastures  has  decreased, 
and  second,  that  unless  the  protection  is  provided  in 
some  form  this  power  must  further  decrease.  It  may  be 
well,  therefore,  to  consider:  (1)  Is  renewal  of  range 
pastures  practicable?  (2)  Is  it  practicable,  without 
modification  in  the  systems  of  grazing  ?  (3)  Which  are 
the  modifications  that  will  make  it  practicable  ? 

Is  Renewal  ^Practicable? — Unquestionably  the  re- 
newal of  range  pastures  is  practicable,  however  diffi- 
cult the  work  may  prove.  Nature  without  man's  aid, 
clothed  these  areas  with  food  plants,  each  locality  with 
those  best  adapted  to  it.  What  nature  has  done,  it 
can  do  again  without  man's  aid,  but  unaided  by  man, 
the  work  of  re-clothing  with  vegetation,  in  part  or  in 
whole,  will  be  slow.  With  man's  aid,  as  when  he  scat- 
ters seed  upon  it,  renovation  will  be  much  more  rapid. 
In  the  judgment  of  the  author,  it  is  both  possible  and 
practicable  to  restore  the  productive  power  of  tlie  ranges, 
although  such  restoration,  in  many  instances,  will  not 
be  easy  and,  in  nearly  all,  will  be  slow. 

Renewal  Not  Practicable  without  Modifications.— 
That  the  renewal  of  the  ranges  is  not  practicable  under 
the  old  system  of  open  range  grazing,  will  be  at  once 
apparent  to  those  who  understand  the  range  country. 
It  will  not  be  practicable  for  the  reasons,  first,  that 
while  the  range  remains  public  domain  and  its  priv- 


446  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

ileges  are  common  property,  it  is  almost  certain  that 
it  will  be  overstocked;  second,  that  while  it  is  public 
domain  and  thus  overstocked,  the  grasses  cannot  re- 
seed  the  land  sufficiently  to  maintain  themselves  without 
diminution;  and  third,  that  while  it  remains  public 
property,  the  incentive  to  protect  the  range  grasses  is 
not  practicable.  Without  modications  in  the  system 
of  ranching,  therefore,  the  thing  that  hath  been  is  that 
which  shall  be.  The  sustaining  power  of  the  ranges 
must  grow  less  and  less. 

Modifications  That  Are  Necessary. — If  the  range 
pastures  are  to  be  protected  and  renewed,  it  is  very  evi- 
dent from  what  has  been  said  that  this  can  be  done  only 
under  private  ownership.  Such  ownership  would  not 
only  interest  the  individual,  in  protecting  the  grasses, 
but  also  in  improving  them.  Two  methods  at  least  can 
be  given  attention,  both  of  which  should  materially 
farther  the  end  sought.  The  first  is  the  fencing  of  the 
ranges  and  thus  protecting  them,  and  the  second  is 
supplementing  the  seed  produced,  when  the  grazing  is 
alternated,  by  adding  more  seed  or  by  sowing  seed  in 
some  instances  even  where  the  ranges  are  not  fenced. 
That  the  renewal  of  the  ranges  is  attended  with  no  little 
difficulty  will  now  be  shown. 

DIFFICULTIES   IN   THE   WAY   OF  BENEWING   THE   BANGES. 

The  chief  difficulties  in  the  way  of  renewing  the 
ranges  arise  from  the  vastness  of  the  area  occupied, 
from  the  relatively  low  production  of  range  pastures, 
and  from  the  scant  supplies  of  moisture.  These  ob- 


PASTURES  ON  THE  RANGE.  447 

staclcs  will  materially  influence  all  attempts  at  renewal, 
whether  these  are  made  through  fencing  in  the  ranges, 
through  adding  seed  of  suitable  grasses,  or  whether  re- 
newal is  attempted  by  substituting  other  grasses  for 
those  now  on  the  range. 

Renewal  through  Fencing. — In  the  judgment  of  the 
author,  renewal  through  fencing  and  alternating  the 
grazing  is  by  far  the  most  practical  method  of  the 
three.  The  ranges  are  protected,  not  only  by  a  fence 
running  around  each  ranch,  but  when  the  ranches  are 
subdivided  so  that  one  year  some  of  the  pastures  may 
be  allowed  to  re-seed  the  ground,  the  stock  in  the  mean- 
time, grazing  in  other  enclosures,  the  seed  that  falls 
from  the  former  should  prove  effective  in  sufficiently 
thickening  the  grasses.  The  next  year,  the  stock  can 
be  grazed  on  these,  while  in  the  other  pastures  seeds 
are  maturing.  How  frequently  it  would  be  necessary 
to  have  them  thus  re-seed  the  land,  has  not  been  dem- 
onstrated, but  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  necessity  for 
such  protection,  and  re-seeding  would  decrease  with 
the  increase  in  supplies  of  moisture  and  vice  versa.  In 
some  places,  it  would  probably  be  necessary  to  thus 
rest  the  grasses  every  second  year  and  yet  again  every 
third  year  would  suffice. 

Such  fencing,  however,  is  relatively  costly.  Materi- 
als for  fencing  are  not  plentiful  and  transportation  of 
materials  long  distances  is  expensive.  These  things, 
taken  in  connection  with  the  relatively  low  sustaining 
power  of  the  range,  will  be  found  a  considerable  item 
in  the  expenses  of  the  ranchman  and,  so  far,  a  re- 
ducing factor  in  his  profits.  The  further  difficulty  will 


448  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

also  have  to  be  met  of  finding  ample  supplies  of  water 
for  the  live  stock  in  each  area  so  enclosed.  The  method 
of  re-seeding,  through  limited  stocking  of  the  enclosed 
range,  would  also  prove  effective  and  it  may  be  the 
cheaper  of  the  two  in  the  end.  By  low  stocking  is 
meant  keeping  down  the  number  of  animals  kept  with- 
in the  enclosure,  so  that  a  portion  of  the  plants  would 
produce  seed  from  time  to  time. 

Renewal  through  Sowing  Seed. — The  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  sowing  seed  by  hand  are  serious.  First,  about 
the  only  range  grass  producing  seed  that  is  cultivated  is 
western  rye  (Agropyrum  tenerum).  The  cultivation  of 
this  grass  is  as  yet  very  limited,  hence  the  amount  of 
seed  put  upon  the  market  is  small.  The  amount  of 
seed  that  will  yet  be  grown  for  many  years  to  come 
will  be  an  almost  inappreciable  factor  in  re-seeding  the 
range.  It  would  be  possible  for  the  ranchman  to  grow 
his  own  seed,  especially  if  he  could  command  irrigat- 
ing waters,  but  difficulties  would  attend  harvesting  the 
seed  under  range  conditions,  except  in  a  wholesale  way. 
Renewal  by  this  method  must  be  very  slow  for  years  to 
come. 

Renewal  "by  Substitution. — Even  greater  difficulties 
attend  the  renewal  of  the  ranges  by  substituting  other 
grasses  for  those  now  on  the  range.  This  has  been 
advocated,  not  only  where  the  grasses  have  failed,  but 
where  they  have  not,  and  with  a  view  of  increasing  the 
productive  power  of  the  range.  First,  no  variety,  the 
adaptability  of  which  to  range  conditions  has  been 
proved,  is  as  yet  cultivated  except  in  a  more  or  less 
limited  way.  It  will,  therefore,  be  impossible  to  obtain 


PASTURES  ON  THE  RANGE.  449 

much  seed  for  several  years.  If  the  seeds  of  these 
grasses  are  to  become  so  plentiful,  as  to  exercise  an  ap- 
preciable influence  on  range  improvement,  they  must  be 
grown  under  conditions  such  as  will  produce  large  quan- 
tities of  seed.  If  such  renewal  should  effect  im- 
provement for  many  years  the  progress  must  needs 
be  very  slow.  Second,  the  number  of  grasses  which 
promise  any  improvement,  through  substitution  is  very 
limited.  Only  three  of  these  at  the  present  time  would 
seem  possessed  of  such  promise.  These  are  western 
rye,  blue  grama  and  Russian  brome.  While  in  some 
instances,  all  three  may  be  an  improvement  upon  range 
grasses;  in  others,  this  is,  by  no  means,  an  assured 
fact.  To  illustrate:  It  is  by  no  means  certain,  that 
western  rye  grass  will  prove  more  suitable  for  the 
central  range  states,  than  the  species  of  buffalo  grass 
(BuMoe  dactyloides)  which  has  grown  on  them  to  so 
great  an  extent  in  the  past,  nor  is  it  an  assured  fact, 
that  Russian  brome  would  be  an  improvement  over 
the  grasses  now  on  northern  ranges,  though  it  should 
be  grown  on  these.  The  former  would  doubtless  make 
a  better  turf  on  the  central  ranges  and  the  latter  on 
those  of  the  North,  but  in  either  case  would  the  moist- 
ure be  enough  to  sustain  the  grass  growing  on  such  a 
turf  to  make  it  more  productive  than  grasses  which  oc- 
cupy the  soil?  Would  the  Russian  brome  furnish  the 
winter  grazing  desired,  in  as  good  form  as  the  bunch 
grasses,  which  now  grow  and  cure  upon  those  ranges  ?  A 
negative  answer  to  each  question  must  be  looked  for. 
Again  would  Russian  brome  not  grow  so  thickly  under 
some  conditions,  that  it  in  turn  would  require  renewal 


450  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

through  ploughing  occasionally?  This  would  not  be 
practicable  under  range  conditions  except  in  a  limited 
way  because  of  the  great  extent  of  the  ranges.  Third,  is 
it  possible  to  supplant  other  grasses  by  these  without 
ploughing  the  land  ?  When  a  turf  now  covers  the 
ranges,  this  is  doubtful.  If  the  land  has  to  be  ploughed 
to  make  such  substitution  possible,  the  element  of  im- 
practicability comes  again  to  the  front. 

Substitution  through  sowing  the  seed  of  blue  grama 
grass  is  more  hopeful,  especially  in  the  central  and 
southwestern  range  states,  where  the  turf  is  not  usu- 
ally dense.  This  grass  would  seem  to  have  special 
power  to  establish  itself  under  such  conditions,  even 
when  the  precipitation  is  light.  But  the  impossibility 
of  getting  supplies  of  seed  in  a  large  way,  at  the  pres- 
ent time,  is  an  insurmountable  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
such  substitution ;  sometime  in  the  future,  however, 
this  may  be  different.  All  the  evidence  points  to  the 
conclusion,  under  existing  conditions,  that  the  best  way 
of  improving  range  grasses,  at  present,  is  by  some  sys- 
tem of  alternation  in  grazing,  which  makes  possible  the 
re-seeding  of  the  land  by  grasses  now  growing  upon 
the  same.  The  production  of  lands,  that  can  be  tilled, 
can  almost  invariably  be  improved  by  substitution  but 
it  is  not  so  of  much  of  the  land  that  cannot  be  tilled. 

THE  FUTURE  OF  THE  WESTERN  RANGES. 

The  changes  that  are  being  brought  about  by -the  irri- 
gation of  irrigable  lands  will  exercise  an  important  in- 
fluence upon  the  productive  power  of  the  ranges.  The 
vast  quantities  of  food  thus  grown,  along  with  the  pri- 


PASTURES   ON   THE  RANGE.  451 

vate  ownership  of  the  lands,  will  make  it  possible  to 
greatly  increase  the  productiveness  of  the  range  coun- 
try. 1.  It  will  make  the  protection  of  the  ranges  easi- 
er. 2.  It  will  enable  the  ranchman  to  rear  much  of 
the  stock  which  he  grazes.  3.  It  will  enable  him  to 
dispose  of  it  at  an  earlier  age.  4.  It  will  enable  him 
to  fatten  a  considerable  proportion  of  it  at  home. 

Making  Easier  the  Protection  of  the  Ranges. — Irri- 
gation will  make  such  protection  possible,  by  increas- 
ing the  food  supplies.  In  winter  especially,  animals 
will  be  fed  instead  of  grazed.  This  will  spare  the 
grasses  for  summer  grazing  and  it  will  also  make  it 
easier  to  re-seed  them  by  allowing  seed  to  ripen  in  the 
pastures.  The  immense  quantities  of  alfalfa  and  other 
food  that  can  be  grown  on  irrigated  land  will  make  this 
easily  practicable. 

Rearing  Stock  on  the  Ranges. — Until  recently,  ranch- 
men favored  purchasing  young  animals  to  grow  upon 
the  range.  This,  at  least,  was  true  of  cattle.  They 
did  so  because  of  the  difficulty  in  getting  food  sup- 
plies to  feed  young  stock,  also  their  dams,  on  the  range 
in  winter.  The  produce  of  the  natural  meadows  grad- 
ually grew  less  with  retrogression  in  pasture  produc- 
tion, owing  to  cutting  too  frequently,  in  conjunction 
with  over  grazing.  Experience  had  demonstrated  that, 
if  calves  were  to  be  reared  on  the  range,  feeding  them 
the  first  winter  was  an  imperative  necessity.  This  is 
now  easily  practicable  in  all  irrigated  centres. 

Disposing  of  Stock  at  a  Young  Age. — The  winter 
supplies  thus  grown,  will  enable  the  ranchman  to  dis- 
pose of  animals  at  an  age  younger  than  would  be  prac- 


452  GRASSES  AND  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM. 

ticable  in  the  absence  of  these.  Cattle  sold  at  three 
years,  in  the  absence  of  such  supplies,  may  be  sold  at 
two  years,  when  they  are  present.  A  whole  year  of 
what  is  usually  termed  the  food  of  maintenance  may 
thus  be  saved,  in  the  rearing  of  each  cattle  beast,  grown 
on  the  ranges.  This  arises  from  continuity  in  growth, 
made  possible  in  winter,  as  well  as  in  summer.  Young 
cattle,  grazing  on  the  open  range,  will  do  little  more 
than  maintain  themselves  during  the  winter  months; 
when  fed  upon  alfalfa,  they  make  substantial  gains.  It 
will  be  possible,  therefore,  to  save,  in  the  aggregate, 
the  food  of  maintenance  for  one  year  of  every  cattle 
beast,  grown  on  the  range.  In  other  words,  it  will 
make  it  possible  to  use  such  quantities  of  food,  in  the 
aggregate,  at  one  time  used  as  food  of  maintenance,  in 
growing  meat,  thus  making  the  ranges  just  that  much 
more  productive. 

Fattening  Stock  on  the  .Ranges. — Formerly  stock 
could  not  be  fattened  on  the  ranges  in  the  very  best 
form,  since  grass  was  the  only  food  grown.  'Now  in 
addition  to  the  fodder,  grown  under  irrigation  in  the 
valleys  much  grain  is  also  being  grown.  This  makes 
it  possible  to  finish  live  stock  in  the  range  country, 
before  shipment  and  the  proportion  that  will  be  thus 
finished  will  increase  with  the  increase  of  such  pro- 
duction thus  adding  to  the  profits  of  the  ranchman. 
But  it  is  not  probable  that  the  time  will  ever  come, 
when  all  the  stock,  grown  on  the  range,  will  or  can 
be  finished  there.  The  disproportion  between  the  un- 
irrigable  and  irrigable  lands  is  too  great  to  admit  of 
such  a  result,  hence  it  will  always  be  possible  for  the 


PASTURES  ON  THE  RANGE.  453 

range  to  supply,  more  or  less  of  feeding  stock  to  farm- 
ers further  east.  Viewed,  therefore,  from  the  stand- 
point of  actual  production  in  the  range  grasses  in  their 
aggregate  form;  that  of  the  great  possible  increase  in 
production  in  the  range  country,  and  the  relation,  which 
range  grasses  must  bear  to  this  increase;  and  from 
that  of  the  almost  insuperable  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  substituting  other  grasses,  for  those  now  growing 
on  the  range,  the  proper  preservation  of  these,  as  pre- 
viously intimated,  is  certainly  a  matter  of  national  im- 
portance. 


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